Channelopathies linked to plasma membrane phosphoinositides

Cholesterol Regulation of Membrane Proteins Revealed by Two-Color Super-Resolution Imaging

Cholesterol and phosphatidyl inositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) are hydrophobic molecules that regulate protein function in the plasma membrane of all cells. In this review, we discuss how changes in cholesterol concentration cause nanoscopic (<200 nm) movements of membrane proteins to regulate their function. Cholesterol is known to cluster many membrane proteins (often palmitoylated proteins) with long-chain saturated lipids. Although PIP₂ is better known for gating ion channels, in this review, we will discuss a second independent function as a regulator of nanoscopic protein movement that opposes cholesterol clustering. The understanding of the movement of proteins between nanoscopic lipid domains emerged largely through the recent advent of super-resolution imaging and the establishment of two-color techniques to label lipids separate from proteins. We discuss the labeling techniques for imaging, their strengths and weakness, and how they are used to reveal novel mechanisms for an ion channel, transporter, and enzyme function. Among the mechanisms, we describe substrate and ligand presentation and their ability to activate enzymes, gate channels, and transporters rapidly and potently. Finally, we define cholesterol-regulated proteins (CRP) and discuss the role of PIP₂ in opposing the regulation of cholesterol, as seen through super-resolution imaging.

RyR2 regulates store-operated Ca2+ entry, phospholipase C activity, and electrical excitability in the insulinoma cell line INS-1

The ER Ca2+ channel ryanodine receptor 2 (RyR2) is required for maintenance of insulin content and glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, in part, via regulation of the protein IRBIT in the insulinoma cell line INS-1. Here, we examined store-operated and depolarization-dependent Ca2+entry using INS-1 cells in which either RyR2 or IRBIT were deleted. Store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) stimulated with thapsigargin was reduced in RyR2KO cells compared to controls, but was unchanged in IRBITKO cells. STIM1 protein levels were not different between the three cell lines. Basal and stimulated (500 μM carbachol) phospholipase C (PLC) activity was also reduced specifically in RyR2KO cells. Insulin secretion stimulated by tolbutamide was reduced in RyR2KO and IRBITKO cells compared to controls, but was potentiated by an EPAC-selective cAMP analog in all three cell lines. Cellular PIP2 levels were increased and cortical f-actin levels were reduced in RyR2KO cells compared to controls. Whole-cell Cav channel current density was increased in RyR2KO cells compared to controls, and barium current was reduced by acute activation of the lipid phosphatase pseudojanin preferentially in RyR2KO cells over control INS-1 cells. Action potentials stimulated by 18 mM glucose were more frequent in RyR2KO cells compared to controls, and insensitive to the SK channel inhibitor apamin. Taken together, these results suggest that RyR2 plays a critical role in regulating PLC activity and PIP2 levels via regulation of SOCE. RyR2 also regulates β-cell electrical activity by controlling Cav current density and SK channel activation.

Modulation of the IKS channel by PIP2 requires two binding sites per monomer

The phosphatidyl-inositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) lipid has been shown to be crucial for the coupling between the voltage sensor and the pore of the potassium voltage-gated K_V7 channel family, especially the K_V7.1 channel. Expressed in the myocardium membrane, K_V7.1 forms a complex with KCNE1 auxiliary subunits to generate the I_KS current. Here we present molecular models of the transmembrane region of this complex in its three known states, namely the Resting/Closed (RC), the Intermediate/Closed (IC), and the Activated/Open (AO), robustness of which is assessed by agreement with a range of biophysical data. Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations of these models embedded in a lipid bilayer including phosphatidyl-inositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) lipids show that in presence of KCNE1, two PIP₂ lipids are necessary to stabilize each state. The simulations also show that KCNE1 interacts with both PIP₂ binding sites, forming a tourniquet around the pore and preventing its opening. The present investigation provides therefore key molecular elements that govern the role of PIP₂ in KCNE1 modulation of I_KS channels, possibly a common mechanism by which auxiliary KCNE subunits might modulate a variety of other ion channels.

Intermolecular functional coupling between phosphoinositides and the potassium channel KcsA

Biological membranes are composed of a wide variety of lipids. Phosphoinositides (PIPns) in the membrane inner leaflet only account for a small percentage of the total membrane lipids but modulate the functions of various membrane proteins, including ion channels, which play important roles in cell signaling. KcsA, a prototypical K⁺ channel that is small, simple, and easy to handle, has been broadly examined regarding its crystallography, in silico molecular analysis, and electrophysiology. It has been reported that KcsA activity is regulated by membrane phospholipids, such as phosphatidylglycerol. However, there has been no quantitative analysis of the correlation between direct lipid binding and the functional modification of KcsA, and it is unknown whether PIPns modulate KcsA function. Here, using contact bubble bilayer recording, we observed that the open probability of KcsA increased significantly (from about 10% to 90%) when the membrane inner leaflet contained only a small percentage of PIPns. In addition, we found an increase in the electrophysiological activity of KcsA correlated with a larger number of negative charges on PIPns. We further analyzed the affinity of the direct interaction between PIPns and KcsA using microscale thermophoresis and observed a strong correlation between direct lipid binding and the functional modification of KcsA. In conclusion, our approach was able to reconstruct the direct modification of KcsA by PIPns, and we propose that it can also be applied to elucidate the mechanism of modification of other ion channels by PIPns.

Emerging Diversity in Lipid-Protein Interactions

Membrane lipids interact with proteins in a variety of ways, ranging from providing a stable membrane environment for proteins to being embedded in to detailed roles in complicated and well-regulated protein functions. Experimental and computational advances are converging in a rapidly expanding research area of lipid-protein interactions. Experimentally, the database of high-resolution membrane protein structures is growing, as are capabilities to identify the complex lipid composition of different membranes, to probe the challenging time and length scales of lipid-protein interactions, and to link lipid-protein interactions to protein function in a variety of proteins. Computationally, more accurate membrane models and more powerful computers now enable a detailed look at lipid-protein interactions and increasing overlap with experimental observations for validation and joint interpretation of simulation and experiment. Here we review papers that use computational approaches to study detailed lipid-protein interactions, together with brief experimental and physiological contexts, aiming at comprehensive coverage of simulation papers in the last five years. Overall, a complex picture of lipid-protein interactions emerges, through a range of mechanisms including modulation of the physical properties of the lipid environment, detailed chemical interactions between lipids and proteins, and key functional roles of very specific lipids binding to well-defined binding sites on proteins. Computationally, despite important limitations, molecular dynamics simulations with current computer power and theoretical models are now in an excellent position to answer detailed questions about lipid-protein interactions.

Characterization of Lipid-Protein Interactions and Lipid-Mediated Modulation of Membrane Protein Function through Molecular Simulation

The cellular membrane constitutes one of the most fundamental compartments of a living cell, where key processes such as selective transport of material and exchange of information between the cell and its environment are mediated by proteins that are closely associated with the membrane. The heterogeneity of lipid composition of biological membranes and the effect of lipid molecules on the structure, dynamics, and function of membrane proteins are now widely recognized. Characterization of these functionally important lipid-protein interactions with experimental techniques is however still prohibitively challenging. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations offer a powerful complementary approach with sufficient temporal and spatial resolutions to gain atomic-level structural information and energetics on lipid-protein interactions. In this review, we aim to provide a broad survey of MD simulations focusing on exploring lipid-protein interactions and characterizing lipid-modulated protein structure and dynamics that have been successful in providing novel insight into the mechanism of membrane protein function.

Understanding phosphoinositides: rare, dynamic, and essential membrane phospholipids

Polyphosphoinositides (PPIs) are essential phospholipids located in the cytoplasmic leaflet of eukaryotic cell membranes. Despite contributing only a small fraction to the bulk of cellular phospholipids, they make remarkable contributions to practically all aspects of a cell's life and death. They do so by recruiting cytoplasmic proteins/effectors or by interacting with cytoplasmic domains of membrane proteins at the membrane-cytoplasm interface to organize and mold organelle identity. The present study summarizes aspects of our current understanding concerning the metabolism, manipulation, measurement, and intimate roles these lipids play in regulating membrane homeostasis and vital cell signaling reactions in health and disease.

Triple arginine residues in the proximal C-terminus of TREK K+ channels are critical for biphasic regulation by phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate

TWIK-related two-pore domain K⁺ channels (TREKs) are activated by acidic intracellular pH (pH_i), membrane stretch, temperature, and arachidonic acid (AA). Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) exerts concentration-dependent biphasic regulations, which have been observed: inhibition by high PIP₂, activation by partial decrease of PIP₂, and inhibition by depletion of PIP₂. Consistently, the stimulation of voltage-sensitive PIP₂ phosphatase (Dr-VSP) induces initial activation and subsequent inhibition of TREKs. Lys in the proximal C-terminus (pCt) is responsible for the inhibition by high PIP₂, which is generated by phosphatidylinositol kinases with ATP; its neutralizing mutation [K³³⁰A of human TREK-2 (hTREK-2)] induces tonic high activity, irrespective of ATP. Here we focus on triple successive Arg in pCt (R3-pCt) as a candidate region for the stimulatory regulation by lower PIP₂. Their neutralized mutant (R3A-pCt; RRR^340-2A and RRR^355-7A in hTREK-1 and -2, respectively) showed negligible basal current and was not affected by ATP removal or by Dr-VSP activation. Phosphatidic acid, a phospholipid agonist of TREKs, did not activate R3A-pCt. In contrast, acidic pH_i, AA, and high temperature activated R3A-pCt normally, whereas activation by membrane stretch was attenuated. In hTREK-2, combined neutralizations of the inhibitory K³³⁰ and R3-pCt (K³³⁰A/RRR^355-7A) did not recover the suppressed current. In contrast, combined neutralization of pH_i-sensing Glu (E³³²A/R^355-7A) induced tonic high current and no further activation by pH_i. Interestingly, when the Gly between K³³⁰/E³³² and R3-pCt was mutated (G³³⁴A), hTREK-2 was tonic activated with reversed responses to ATP and acidic pH_i. Therefore, we propose that the PIP₂-dependent converse regulation of TREKs by Lys and R3-pCt with Gly implies structural flexibility.

Metabotropic Acetylcholine and Glutamate Receptors Mediate PI(4,5)P2 Depletion and Oscillations in Hippocampal CA1 Pyramidal Neurons in situ

The sensitivity of many ion channels to phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) levels in the cell membrane suggests that PIP2 fluctuations are important and general signals modulating neuronal excitability. Yet the PIP2 dynamics of central neurons in their native environment remained largely unexplored. Here, we examined the behavior of PIP2 concentrations in response to activation of Gq-coupled neurotransmitter receptors in rat CA1 hippocampal neurons in situ in acute brain slices. Confocal microscopy of the PIP2-selective molecular sensors tubbyCT-GFP and PLCδ1-PH-GFP showed that pharmacological activation of muscarinic acetylcholine (mAChR) or group I metabotropic glutamate (mGluRI) receptors induces transient depletion of PIP2 in the soma as well as in the dendritic tree. The observed PIP2 dynamics were receptor-specific, with mAChR activation inducing stronger PIP2 depletion than mGluRI, whereas agonists of other Gαq-coupled receptors expressed in CA1 neurons did not induce measureable PIP2 depletion. Furthermore, the data show for the first time neuronal receptor-induced oscillations of membrane PIP2 concentrations. Oscillatory behavior indicated that neurons can rapidly restore PIP2 levels during persistent activation of Gq and PLC. Electrophysiological responses to receptor activation resembled PIP2 dynamics in terms of time course and receptor specificity. Our findings support a physiological function of PIP2 in regulating electrical activity.

Dimerization of the voltage-sensing phosphatase controls its voltage-sensing and catalytic activity

The Ciona intestinalis voltage-sensing phosphatase (Ci-VSP) was not thought to multimerize. Rayaprolu et al. show that Ci-VSP exists as a dimer and that this interaction lowers the voltage dependence of activation and alters substrate specificity.

Multimerization is a key characteristic of most voltage-sensing proteins. The main exception was thought to be the Ciona intestinalis voltage-sensing phosphatase (Ci-VSP). In this study, we show that multimerization is also critical for Ci-VSP function. Using coimmunoprecipitation and single-molecule pull-down, we find that Ci-VSP stoichiometry is flexible. It exists as both monomers and dimers, with dimers favored at higher concentrations. We show strong dimerization via the voltage-sensing domain (VSD) and weak dimerization via the phosphatase domain. Using voltage-clamp fluorometry, we also find that VSDs cooperate to lower the voltage dependence of activation, thus favoring the activation of Ci-VSP. Finally, using activity assays, we find that dimerization alters Ci-VSP substrate specificity such that only dimeric Ci-VSP is able to dephosphorylate the 3-phosphate from PI(3,4,5)P₃ or PI(3,4)P₂. Our results indicate that dimerization plays a significant role in Ci-VSP function.

Identification of critical amino acids in the proximal C-terminal of TREK-2 K+ channel for activation by acidic pHi and ATP-dependent inhibition

TWIK-related two-pore domain K⁺ channels (TREKs) are regulated by intracellular pH (pH_i) and Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI(4,5)P₂). Previously, Glu³⁰⁶ in proximal C-terminal (pCt) of mouse TREK-1 was identified as the pH_i-sensing residue. The direction of PI(4,5)P₂ sensitivity is controversial, and we have recently shown that TREKs are inhibited by intracellular ATP via endogenous PI(4,5)P₂ formation. Here we investigate the anionic and cationic residues of pCt for the pH_i and ATP-sensitivity in human TREK-2 (hTREK-2). In inside-out patch clamp recordings (I_TREK-2,i-o), acidic pH_i-induced activation was absent in E332A and was partly attenuated in E335A. Neutralization of cationic Lys (K330A) also eliminated the acidic pH_i sensitivity of I_TREK-2,i-o. Unlike the inhibition of wild-type (WT) I_TREK-2,i-o by intracellular ATP, neither E332A nor K330A was sensitive to ATP. Nevertheless, exogenous PI(4,5)P₂ (10 μM) abolished I_{TREK-2 i-o} in all the above mutants as well as in WT, indicating unspecific inhibition by exogenous PI(4,5)P₂. In whole-cell recordings of TREK-2 (I_TREK-2,w-c), K330A and E332A showed higher or fully active basal activity, showing attenuated or insignificant activation by 2-APB, arachidonic acid, or acidic pH_e 6.9. I_TREK-1,w-c of WT is largely suppressed by pH_e 6.9, and the inhibition is slightly attenuated in K312A and E315A. The results show concerted roles of the oppositely charged Lys and Glu in pCt for the ATP-dependent low basal activity and pH_i sensitivity.

Synergistic activation of G protein-gated inwardly rectifying potassium channels by cholesterol and PI(4,5)P2

G-protein gated inwardly rectifying potassium (GIRK or Kir3) channels play a major role in the control of the heart rate, and require the membrane phospholipid phosphatidylinositol-bis-phosphate (PI(4,5)P₂) for activation. Recently, we have shown that the activity of the heterotetrameric Kir3.1/Kir3.4 channel that underlies atrial K_ACh currents was enhanced by cholesterol. Similarly, the activities of both the Kir3.4 homomer and its active pore mutant Kir3.4* (Kir3.4_S143T) were also enhanced by cholesterol. Here we employ planar lipid bilayers to investigate the crosstalk between PI(4,5)P₂ and cholesterol, and demonstrate that these two lipids act synergistically to activate Kir3.4* currents. Further studies using the Xenopus oocytes heterologous expression system suggest that PI(4,5)P₂ and cholesterol act via distinct binding sites. Whereas PI(4,5)P₂ binds to the cytosolic domain of the channel, the putative binding region of cholesterol is located at the center of the transmembrane domain overlapping the central glycine hinge region of the channel. Together, our data suggest that changes in the levels of two key membrane lipids - cholesterol and PI(4,5)P₂ - could act in concert to provide fine-tuning of Kir3 channel function.

Early-onset epileptic encephalopathy caused by a reduced sensitivity of Kv7.2 potassium channels to phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate

Kv7.2 and Kv7.3 subunits underlie the M-current, a neuronal K⁺ current characterized by an absolute functional requirement for phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂). Kv7.2 gene mutations cause early-onset neonatal seizures with heterogeneous clinical outcomes, ranging from self-limiting benign familial neonatal seizures to severe early-onset epileptic encephalopathy (Kv7.2-EE). In this study, the biochemical and functional consequences prompted by a recurrent variant (R325G) found independently in four individuals with severe forms of neonatal-onset EE have been investigated. Upon heterologous expression, homomeric Kv7.2 R325G channels were non-functional, despite biotin-capture in Western blots revealed normal plasma membrane subunit expression. Mutant subunits exerted dominant-negative effects when incorporated into heteromeric channels with Kv7.2 and/or Kv7.3 subunits. Increasing cellular PIP₂ levels by co-expression of type 1γ PI(4)P5-kinase (PIP5K) partially recovered homomeric Kv7.2 R325G channel function. Currents carried by heteromeric channels incorporating Kv7.2 R325G subunits were more readily inhibited than wild-type channels upon activation of a voltage-sensitive phosphatase (VSP), and recovered more slowly upon VSP switch-off. These results reveal for the first time that a mutation-induced decrease in current sensitivity to PIP₂ is the primary molecular defect responsible for Kv7.2-EE in individuals carrying the R325G variant, further expanding the range of pathogenetic mechanisms exploitable for personalized treatment of Kv7.2-related epilepsies.

Regulation of KCNQ/Kv7 family voltage-gated K+ channels by lipids

Many years of studies have established that lipids can impact membrane protein structure and function through bulk membrane effects, by direct but transient annular interactions with the bilayer-exposed surface of protein transmembrane domains, and by specific binding to protein sites. Here, we focus on how phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) impact ion channel function and how the structural details of the interactions of these lipids with ion channels are beginning to emerge. We focus on the Kv7 (KCNQ) subfamily of voltage-gated K⁺ channels, which are regulated by both PIP₂ and PUFAs and play a variety of important roles in human health and disease. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Lipid order/lipid defects and lipid-control of protein activity edited by Dirk Schneider.

The Molecular Mechanism of Opening the Helix Bundle Crossing (HBC) Gate of a Kir Channel

Inwardly rectifying K⁺ (Kir) channels, serving as natural molecular nanomachines, transport potassium ions across the plasma membrane of the cell. Along the ion permeation pathway, three relatively narrow regions (the selectivity filter (SF), the inner helix bundle crossing (HBC), and the cytosolic G loop) may serve as gates to control ion permeation. Our previous molecular dynamics simulations based on the crystal structure of a Kir3.1 chimera revealed the possible gating mechanism of the G loop gate. Here, we introduced a proline mutation in the inner helix and obtained a channel model of the open HBC gate. The open HBC gate reaches 0.6 nm in diameter, which allows partial hydrated K⁺ ions to pass through. During the gating process, both the transmembrane helices TM1 and TM2 cooperatively rotate in a counterclockwise direction (viewed from the extracellular side) with the aid of the phospholipid PIP₂. Only when all the transmembrane helices adopt a counterclockwise rotation, the HBC gate can be stabilized in the open state. We estimate that introduction of the proline mutation decreases the energy required to open the HBC gate by about 1.4 kcal/mol (ΔΔG).

Reprint of "Mechanisms of lipid regulation and lipid gating in TRPC channels"

TRPC proteins form cation channels that integrate and relay cellular signals by mechanisms involving lipid recognition and lipid-dependent gating. The lipohilic/amphiphilic molecules that function as cellular activators or modulators of TRPC proteins span a wide range of chemical structures. In this context, cellular redox balance is likely linked to the lipid recognition/gating features of TRPC channels. Both classical ligand-protein interactions as well as indirect and promiscuous sensory mechanisms have been proposed. Some of the recognition processes are suggested to involve ancillary lipid-binding scaffolds or regulators as well as dynamic protein-protein interactions determined by bilayer architecture. A complex interplay of protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions is likely to govern the gating and/or plasma membrane recruitment of TRPC channels, thereby providing a distinguished platform for signal integration and coincident signal detection. Both the primary molecular event(s) of lipid recognition by TRPC channels as well as the transformation of these events into distinct gating movements is poorly understood at the molecular level, and it remains elusive whether lipid sensing in TRPCs is conferred to a distinct sensor domain. Recent structural information on the molecular action of lipophilic activators in distantly related members of the TRP superfamily encourages speculations on TRPC gating mechanisms involved in lipid recognition/gating. This review aims to provide an update on the current understanding of the lipid-dependent control of TRPC channels with focus on the TRPC lipid sensing, signal-integration hub and a short discussion of potential links to redox signaling.

Mechanisms of lipid regulation and lipid gating in TRPC channels

TRPC proteins form cation channels that integrate and relay cellular signals by mechanisms involving lipid recognition and lipid-dependent gating. The lipohilic/amphiphilic molecules that function as cellular activators or modulators of TRPC proteins span a wide range of chemical structures. In this context, cellular redox balance is likely linked to the lipid recognition/gating features of TRPC channels. Both classical ligand-protein interactions as well as indirect and promiscuous sensory mechanisms have been proposed. Some of the recognition processes are suggested to involve ancillary lipid-binding scaffolds or regulators as well as dynamic protein-protein interactions determined by bilayer architecture. A complex interplay of protein-protein and protein-lipid interactions is likely to govern the gating and/or plasma membrane recruitment of TRPC channels, thereby providing a distinguished platform for signal integration and coincident signal detection. Both the primary molecular event(s) of lipid recognition by TRPC channels as well as the transformation of these events into distinct gating movements is poorly understood at the molecular level, and it remains elusive whether lipid sensing in TRPCs is conferred to a distinct sensor domain. Recent structural information on the molecular action of lipophilic activators in distantly related members of the TRP superfamily encourages speculations on TRPC gating mechanisms involved in lipid recognition/gating. This review aims to provide an update on the current understanding of the lipid-dependent control of TRPC channels with focus on the TRPC lipid sensing, signal-integration hub and a short discussion of potential links to redox signaling.

Pancreatic Beta Cell G-Protein Coupled Receptors and Second Messenger Interactions: A Systems Biology Computational Analysis

Insulin secretory in pancreatic beta-cells responses to nutrient stimuli and hormonal modulators include multiple messengers and signaling pathways with complex interdependencies. Here we present a computational model that incorporates recent data on glucose metabolism, plasma membrane potential, G-protein-coupled-receptors (GPCR), cytoplasmic and endoplasmic reticulum calcium dynamics, cAMP and phospholipase C pathways that regulate interactions between second messengers in pancreatic beta-cells. The values of key model parameters were inferred from published experimental data. The model gives a reasonable fit to important aspects of experimentally measured metabolic and second messenger concentrations and provides a framework for analyzing the role of metabolic, hormones and neurotransmitters changes on insulin secretion. Our analysis of the dynamic data provides support for the hypothesis that activation of Ca²⁺-dependent adenylyl cyclases play a critical role in modulating the effects of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and catecholamines. The regulatory properties of adenylyl cyclase isoforms determine fluctuations in cytoplasmic cAMP concentration and reveal a synergistic action of glucose, GLP-1 and GIP on insulin secretion. On the other hand, the regulatory properties of phospholipase C isoforms determine the interaction of glucose, acetylcholine and free fatty acids (FFA) (that act through the FFA receptors) on insulin secretion. We found that a combination of GPCR agonists activating different messenger pathways can stimulate insulin secretion more effectively than a combination of GPCR agonists for a single pathway. This analysis also suggests that the activators of GLP-1, GIP and FFA receptors may have a relatively low risk of hypoglycemia in fasting conditions whereas an activator of muscarinic receptors can increase this risk. This computational analysis demonstrates that study of second messenger pathway interactions will improve understanding of critical regulatory sites, how different GPCRs interact and pharmacological targets for modulating insulin secretion in type 2 diabetes.

The ICl,swell inhibitor DCPIB blocks Kir channels that possess weak affinity for PIP2

Inwardly rectifying K(+) (Kir) channels are important contributors to the resting membrane potential and regulate cellular excitability. The activity of Kir channels depends critically on the phospholipid PIP2. Several modulators of the activity of Kir channels alter the apparent affinity of the channel to PIP2. Channels with high apparent affinity to PIP2 may not respond to a given modulator, but mutations that decrease such affinity can render the channel susceptible to modulation. Here, we identify a known inhibitor of the swelling-activated Cl(-) current, DCPIB, as an effective inhibitor of a number of Kir channels both in native cardiac cells and in heterologous expression systems. We show that the apparent affinity to PIP2 determines whether DCPIB will serve as an efficient blocker of Kir channels. These effects are consistent with a model in which DCPIB competes with PIP2 for a common binding site.

Applying high-performance computing in drug discovery and molecular simulation

In recent decades, high-performance computing (HPC) technologies and supercomputers in China have significantly advanced, resulting in remarkable achievements. Computational drug discovery and design, which is based on HPC and combines pharmaceutical chemistry and computational biology, has become a critical approach in drug research and development and is financially supported by the Chinese government. This approach has yielded a series of new algorithms in drug design, as well as new software and databases. This review mainly focuses on the application of HPC to the fields of drug discovery and molecular simulation at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, including virtual drug screening, molecular dynamics simulation, and protein folding. In addition, the potential future application of HPC in precision medicine is briefly discussed.

Uncoupling PIP2-calmodulin regulation of Kv7.2 channels by an assembly destabilizing epileptogenic mutation

We show that the combination of an intracellular bi-partite calmodulin (CaM)-binding site and a distant assembly region affect how an ion channel is regulated by a membrane lipid. Our data reveal that regulation by phosphatidylinositol(4,5)bisphosphate (PIP2) and stabilization of assembled Kv7.2 subunits by intracellular coiled-coil regions far from the membrane are coupled molecular processes. Live-cell fluorescence energy transfer measurements and direct binding studies indicate that remote coiled-coil formation creates conditions for different CaM interaction modes, each conferring different PIP2 dependency to Kv7.2 channels. Disruption of coiled-coil formation by epilepsy-causing mutation decreases apparent CaM-binding affinity and interrupts CaM influence on PIP2 sensitivity.

Membrane Protein Structure, Function, and Dynamics: a Perspective from Experiments and Theory

Membrane proteins mediate processes that are fundamental for the flourishing of biological cells. Membrane-embedded transporters move ions and larger solutes across membranes; receptors mediate communication between the cell and its environment and membrane-embedded enzymes catalyze chemical reactions. Understanding these mechanisms of action requires knowledge of how the proteins couple to their fluid, hydrated lipid membrane environment. We present here current studies in computational and experimental membrane protein biophysics, and show how they address outstanding challenges in understanding the complex environmental effects on the structure, function, and dynamics of membrane proteins.

Unifying Mechanism of Controlling Kir3 Channel Activity by G Proteins and Phosphoinositides

The question that started with the pioneering work of Otto Loewi in the 1920s, to identify how stimulation of the vagus nerve decreased heart rate, is approaching its 100th year anniversary. In the meantime, we have learned that the neurotransmitter acetylcholine acting through muscarinic M2 receptors activates cardiac potassium (Kir3) channels via the βγ subunits of G proteins, an important effect that contributes to slowing atrial pacemaker activity. Concurrent stimulation of M1 or M3 receptors hydrolyzes PIP2, a signaling phospholipid essential to maintaining Kir3 channel activity, thus causing desensitization of channel activity and protecting the heart from overinhibition of pacemaker activity. Four mammalian members of the Kir3 subfamily, expressed in heart, brain, endocrine organs, etc., are modulated by a plethora of stimuli to regulate cellular excitability. With the recent great advances in ion channel structural biology, three-dimensional structures of Kir3 channels with PIP2 and the Gβγ subunits are now available. Mechanistic insights have emerged that explain how modulatory control of activity feeds into a core mechanism of channel-PIP2 interactions to regulate the conformation of channel gates. This complex but beautiful system continues to surprise us for almost 100 years with an apparent wisdom in its intricate design.

Molecular overlap in the regulation of SK channels by small molecules and phosphoinositides

Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) directly interacts with the small-conductance Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ 2-a (SK2-a) channel/calmodulin complex, serving as a critical element in the regulation of channel activity. We report that changes of protein conformation in close proximity to the PIP₂ binding site induced by a small-molecule SK channel modulator, NS309, can effectively enhance the interaction between the protein and PIP₂ to potentiate channel activity. This novel modulation of PIP₂ sensitivity by small-molecule drugs is likely not to be limited in its application to SK channels, representing an intriguing strategy to develop drugs controlling the activity of the large number of PIP₂-dependent proteins.

Phosphoinositides regulate ion channels

Phosphoinositides serve as signature motifs for different cellular membranes and often are required for the function of membrane proteins. Here, we summarize clear evidence supporting the concept that many ion channels are regulated by membrane phosphoinositides. We describe tools used to test their dependence on phosphoinositides, especially phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, and consider mechanisms and biological meanings of phosphoinositide regulation of ion channels. This lipid regulation can underlie changes of channel activity and electrical excitability in response to receptors. Since different intracellular membranes have different lipid compositions, the activity of ion channels still in transit towards their final destination membrane may be suppressed until they reach an optimal lipid environment. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Phosphoinositides.

Molecular Dynamics Simulations of KirBac1.1 Mutants Reveal Global Gating Changes of Kir Channels

Prokaryotic inwardly rectifying (KirBac) potassium channels are homologous to mammalian Kir channels. Their activity is controlled by dynamical conformational changes that regulate ion flow through a central pore. Understanding the dynamical rearrangements of Kir channels during gating requires high-resolution structure information from channels crystallized in different conformations and insight into the transition steps, which are difficult to access experimentally. In this study, we use MD simulations on wild type KirBac1.1 and an activatory mutant to investigate activation gating of KirBac channels. Full atomistic MD simulations revealed that introducing glutamate in position 143 causes significant widening at the helix bundle crossing gate, enabling water flux into the cavity. Further, global rearrangements including a twisting motion as well as local rearrangements at the subunit interface in the cytoplasmic domain were observed. These structural rearrangements are similar to recently reported KirBac3.1 crystal structures in closed and open conformation, suggesting that our simulations capture major conformational changes during KirBac1.1 opening. In addition, an important role of protein-lipid interactions during gating was observed. Slide-helix and C-linker interactions with lipids were strengthened during activation gating.

Voltage-sensing phosphatase modulation by a C2 domain

The voltage-sensing phosphatase (VSP) is the first example of an enzyme controlled by changes in membrane potential. VSP has four distinct regions: the transmembrane voltage-sensing domain (VSD), the inter-domain linker, the cytosolic catalytic domain, and the C2 domain. The VSD transmits the changes in membrane potential through the inter-domain linker activating the catalytic domain which then dephosphorylates phosphatidylinositol phosphate (PIP) lipids. The role of the C2, however, has not been established. In this study, we explore two possible roles for the C2: catalysis and membrane-binding. The Ci-VSP crystal structures show that the C2 residue Y522 lines the active site suggesting a contribution to catalysis. When we mutated Y522 to phenylalanine, we found a shift in the voltage dependence of activity. This suggests hydrogen bonding as a mechanism of action. Going one step further, when we deleted the entire C2 domain, we found voltage-dependent enzyme activity was no longer detectable. This result clearly indicates the entire C2 is necessary for catalysis as well as for modulating activity. As C2s are known membrane-binding domains, we tested whether the VSP C2 interacts with the membrane. We probed a cluster of four positively charged residues lining the top of the C2 and suggested by previous studies to interact with phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P₂] (Kalli et al., 2014). Neutralizing those positive charges significantly shifted the voltage dependence of activity to higher voltages. We tested membrane binding by depleting PI(4,5)P₂ from the membrane using the 5HT2C receptor and found that the VSD motions as measured by voltage clamp fluorometry (VCF) were not changed. These results suggest that if the C2 domain interacts with the membrane to influence VSP function it may not occur exclusively through PI(4,5)P₂. Together, this data advances our understanding of the VSP C2 by demonstrating a necessary and critical role for the C2 domain in VSP function.

Mechanisms and dynamics of AKAP79/150-orchestrated multi-protein signalling complexes in brain and peripheral nerve

A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) have emerged as a converging point of diverse signals to achieve spatiotemporal resolution of directed cellular regulation. With the extensive studies of AKAP79/150 in regulation of ion channel activity, the major questions to be posed centre on the mechanism and functional role of synergistic regulation of ion channels by such signalling proteins. In this review, we summarize recent discoveries of AKAP79/150-mediated modulation of voltage-gated neuronal M-type (KCNQ, Kv7) K(+) channels and L-type CaV 1 Ca(2+) channels, on both short- and longer-term time scales, highlighting the dynamics of the macromolecular signalling complexes in brain and peripheral nerve We also discuss several models for the possible mechanisms of these multi-protein assemblies and how they serve the agenda of the neurons in which they occur.

Phosphoinositide substrates of myotubularin affect voltage-activated Ca²⁺ release in skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle excitation–contraction (E–C) coupling is altered in several models of phosphatidylinositol phosphate (PtdInsP) phosphatase deficiency and ryanodine receptor activity measured in vitro was reported to be affected by certain PtdInsPs, thus prompting investigation of the physiological role of PtdInsPs in E–C coupling. We measured intracellular Ca2+ transients in voltage-clamped mouse muscle fibres microinjected with a solution containing a PtdInsP substrate (PtdIns(3,5)P2 or PtdIns(3)P) or product (PtdIns(5)P or PtdIns) of the myotubularin phosphatase MTM1. No significant change was observed in the presence of either PtdIns(5)P or PtdIns but peak SR Ca2+ release was depressed by ~30% and 50% in fibres injected with PtdIns(3,5)P2 and PtdIns(3)P, respectively, with no concurrent alteration in the membrane current signals associated with the DHPR function as well as in the voltage dependence of Ca2+ release inactivation. In permeabilized muscle fibres, the frequency of spontaneous Ca2+ release events was depressed in the presence of the three tested phosphorylated forms of PtdInsP with PtdIns(3,5)P2 being the most effective, leading to an almost complete disappearance of Ca2+ release events. Results support the possibility that pathological accumulation of MTM1 substrates may acutely depress ryanodine receptor-mediated Ca2+ release. Overexpression of a mCherry-tagged form of MTM1 in muscle fibres revealed a striated pattern consistent with the triadic area. Ca2+ release remained although unaffected by MTM1 overexpression and was also unaffected by the PtdIns-3-kinase inhibitor LY2940002, suggesting that the 3-phosphorylated PtdIns lipids active on voltage-activated Ca2+ release are inherently maintained at a low level, inefficient on Ca2+ release in normal conditions.

A painful link between the TRPV1 channel and lysophosphatidic acid

The Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) ion channel is expressed mainly by sensory neurons that detect noxious stimuli from the environment such as high temperatures and pungent compounds (such as allicin and capsaicin) and has been extensively linked to painful and inflammatory processes. This extraordinary protein also responds to endogenous stimuli among which we find molecules of a lipidic nature. We recently described that lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a bioactive lysophospholipid linked to the generation and maintenance of pain, can directly activate TRPV1 and produce pain by binding to the channels' C-terminal region, specifically to residue K710. In an effort to further understand how activation of TRPV1 is achieved by this negatively-charged lipid, we used several synthetic and naturally-occurring lipids to determine the structural requirements that need to be met by these charged lipids in order to produce the activation of TRPV1. In this review, we detail the findings obtained by other research groups and our own on the field of TRPV1-regulation by negatively-charged lipids and discuss the possible therapeutic relevance of these findings on the basis of the role of TRPV1 in pathophysiological processes.

Targeting the Small- and Intermediate-Conductance Ca-Activated Potassium Channels: The Drug-Binding Pocket at the Channel/Calmodulin Interface

The small- and intermediate-conductance Ca(2+)-activated potassium (SK/IK) channels play important roles in the regulation of excitable cells in both the central nervous and cardiovascular systems. Evidence from animal models has implicated SK/IK channels in neurological conditions such as ataxia and alcohol use disorders. Further, genome-wide association studies have suggested that cardiovascular abnormalities such as arrhythmias and hypertension are associated with single nucleotide polymorphisms that occur within the genes encoding the SK/IK channels. The Ca(2+) sensitivity of the SK/IK channels stems from a constitutively bound Ca(2+)-binding protein: calmodulin. Small-molecule positive modulators of SK/IK channels have been developed over the past decade, and recent structural studies have revealed that the binding pocket of these positive modulators is located at the interface between the channel and calmodulin. SK/IK channel positive modulators can potentiate channel activity by enhancing the coupling between Ca(2+) sensing via calmodulin and mechanical opening of the channel. Here, we review binding pocket studies that have provided structural insight into the mechanism of action for SK/IK channel positive modulators. These studies lay the foundation for structure-based drug discovery efforts that can identify novel SK/IK channel positive modulators.

Phosphoinositide control of membrane protein function: a frontier led by studies on ion channels

Anionic phospholipids are critical constituents of the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane, ensuring appropriate membrane topology of transmembrane proteins. Additionally, in eukaryotes, the negatively charged phosphoinositides serve as key signals not only through their hydrolysis products but also through direct control of transmembrane protein function. Direct phosphoinositide control of the activity of ion channels and transporters has been the most convincing case of the critical importance of phospholipid-protein interactions in the functional control of membrane proteins. Furthermore, second messengers, such as [Ca(2+)]i, or posttranslational modifications, such as phosphorylation, can directly or allosterically fine-tune phospholipid-protein interactions and modulate activity. Recent advances in structure determination of membrane proteins have allowed investigators to obtain complexes of ion channels with phosphoinositides and to use computational and experimental approaches to probe the dynamic mechanisms by which lipid-protein interactions control active and inactive protein states.

Interplay Between Lipid Modulators of Kir2 Channels: Cholesterol and PIP2

We have shown earlier that Kir2 channels are suppressed by the elevation of membrane cholesterol. Moreover, it is also well known that activation of Kir channels is critically dependent on a regulatory phospholipid, phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2). In this study we examined the cross-talk between cholesterol and PIP2 in the regulation of Kir2 channels. The strength of Kir2-PIP2 interactions was assessed by acute sequestering of PIP2 with neomycin dialyzed into cells through a patch pipette while simultaneously recording whole cell currents. Consistent with a reduction in PIP2 levels, dialysis of neomycin resulted in a decrease in Kir2.1 and Kir2.3 current amplitudes (current rundown), however, this effect was significantly delayed by cholesterol depletion for both types of channels suggesting that cholesterol depletion strengthens the interaction between Kir2 channels and PIP2. Furthermore, mutation of Kir2.1 that renders the channels' cholesterol insensitive abrogated cholesterol depletion-induced delay in the current rundown whereas reverse mutation in Kir2.3 has the opposite effect. These observations provide further support for the functional cross-talk between cholesterol and PIP2 in regulating Kir2 channels. Consistent with these observations, there is a significant structural overlap between cytosolic residues that are critical for the sensitivity of Kir2 channels to the two lipid modulators but based on recent studies, there is little or no overlap between cholesterol and PIP2 binding sites. Taken together, these observations suggest that cholesterol and PIP2 regulate the channels through distinct binding sites but that the signals generated by the binding of the two modulators converge.

Selective phosphorylation modulates the PIP2 sensitivity of the CaM-SK channel complex

Phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate (PIP2) regulates the activities of many membrane proteins, including ion channels, through direct interactions. However, the affinity of PIP2 is so high for some channel proteins that its physiological role as a modulator has been questioned. Here we show that PIP2 is a key cofactor for activation of small conductance Ca2+-activated potassium channels (SKs) by Ca(2+)-bound calmodulin (CaM). Removal of the endogenous PIP2 inhibits SKs. The PIP2-binding site resides at the interface of CaM and the SK C terminus. We further demonstrate that the affinity of PIP2 for its target proteins can be regulated by cellular signaling. Phosphorylation of CaM T79, located adjacent to the PIP2-binding site, by casein kinase 2 reduces the affinity of PIP2 for the CaM-SK channel complex by altering the dynamic interactions among amino acid residues surrounding the PIP2-binding site. This effect of CaM phosphorylation promotes greater channel inhibition by G protein-mediated hydrolysis of PIP2.

PIP2 regulation of KCNQ channels: biophysical and molecular mechanisms for lipid modulation of voltage-dependent gating

Voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels contain voltage-sensing (VSD) and pore-gate (PGD) structural domains. During voltage-dependent gating, conformational changes in the two domains are coupled giving rise to voltage-dependent opening of the channel. In addition to membrane voltage, KCNQ (Kv7) channel opening requires the membrane lipid phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂). Recent studies suggest that PIP₂ serves as a cofactor to mediate VSD-PGD coupling in KCNQ1 channels. In this review, we put these findings in the context of the current understanding of voltage-dependent gating, lipid modulation of Kv channel activation, and PIP₂-regulation of KCNQ channels. We suggest that lipid-mediated coupling of functional domains is a common mechanism among KCNQ channels that may be applicable to other Kv channels and membrane proteins.

Structural determinants of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) regulation of BK channel activity through the RCK1 Ca2+ coordination site

Big or high conductance potassium (BK) channels are activated by voltage and intracellular calcium (Ca(2+)). Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), a ubiquitous modulator of ion channel activity, has been reported to enhance Ca(2+)-driven gating of BK channels, but a molecular understanding of this interplay or even of the PIP2 regulation of this channel's activity remains elusive. Here, we identify structural determinants in the KDRDD loop (which follows the αA helix in the RCK1 domain) to be responsible for the coupling between Ca(2+) and PIP2 in regulating BK channel activity. In the absence of Ca(2+), RCK1 structural elements limit channel activation through a decrease in the channel's PIP2 apparent affinity. This inhibitory influence of BK channel activation can be relieved by mutation of residues that (a) connect either the RCK1 Ca(2+) coordination site (Asp(367) or its flanking basic residues in the KDRDD loop) to the PIP2-interacting residues (Lys(392) and Arg(393)) found in the αB helix or (b) are involved in hydrophobic interactions between the αA and αB helix of the RCK1 domain. In the presence of Ca(2+), the RCK1-inhibitory influence of channel-PIP2 interactions and channel activity is relieved by Ca(2+) engaging Asp(367). Our results demonstrate that, along with Ca(2+) and voltage, PIP2 is a third factor critical to the integral control of BK channel activity.

M1-muscarinic receptors promote fear memory consolidation via phospholipase C and the M-current

Neuromodulators released during and after a fearful experience promote the consolidation of long-term memory for that experience. Because overconsolidation may contribute to the recurrent and intrusive memories of post-traumatic stress disorder, neuromodulatory receptors provide a potential pharmacological target for prevention. Stimulation of muscarinic receptors promotes memory consolidation in several conditioning paradigms, an effect primarily associated with the M1 receptor (M1R). However, neither inhibiting nor genetically disrupting M1R impairs the consolidation of cued fear memory. Using the M1R agonist cevimeline and antagonist telenzepine, as well as M1R knock-out mice, we show here that M1R, along with β2-adrenergic (β2AR) and D5-dopaminergic (D5R) receptors, regulates the consolidation of cued fear memory by redundantly activating phospholipase C (PLC) in the basolateral amygdala (BLA). We also demonstrate that fear memory consolidation in the BLA is mediated in part by neuromodulatory inhibition of the M-current, which is conducted by KCNQ channels and is known to be inhibited by muscarinic receptors. Manipulating the M-current by administering the KCNQ channel blocker XE991 or the KCNQ channel opener retigabine reverses the effects on consolidation caused by manipulating β2AR, D5R, M1R, and PLC. Finally, we show that cAMP and protein kinase A (cAMP/PKA) signaling relevant to this stage of consolidation is upstream of these neuromodulators and PLC, suggesting an important presynaptic role for cAMP/PKA in consolidation. These results support the idea that neuromodulatory regulation of ion channel activity and neuronal excitability is a critical mechanism for promoting consolidation well after acquisition has occurred.

A long QT mutation substitutes cholesterol for phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate in KCNQ1 channel regulation

Introduction

Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) is a cofactor necessary for the activity of KCNQ1 channels. Some Long QT mutations of KCNQ1, including R243H, R539W and R555C have been shown to decrease KCNQ1 interaction with PIP₂. A previous study suggested that R539W is paradoxically less sensitive to intracellular magnesium inhibition than the WT channel, despite a decreased interaction with PIP₂. In the present study, we confirm this peculiar behavior of R539W and suggest a molecular mechanism underlying it.

Methods and Results

COS-7 cells were transfected with WT or mutated KCNE1-KCNQ1 channel, and patch-clamp recordings were performed in giant-patch, permeabilized-patch or ruptured-patch configuration. Similar to other channels with a decreased PIP₂ affinity, we observed that the R243H and R555C mutations lead to an accelerated current rundown when membrane PIP₂ levels are decreasing. As opposed to R243H and R555C mutants, R539W is not more but rather less sensitive to PIP₂ decrease than the WT channel. A molecular model of a fragment of the KCNQ1 C-terminus and the membrane bilayer suggested that a potential novel interaction of R539W with cholesterol stabilizes the channel opening and hence prevents rundown upon PIP₂ depletion. We then carried out the same rundown experiments under cholesterol depletion and observed an accelerated R539W rundown that is consistent with this model.

Conclusions

We show for the first time that a mutation may shift the channel interaction with PIP₂ to a preference for cholesterol. This de novo interaction wanes the sensitivity to PIP₂ variations, showing that a mutated channel with a decreased affinity to PIP₂ could paradoxically present a slowed current rundown compared to the WT channel. This suggests that caution is required when using measurements of current rundown as an indicator to compare WT and mutant channel PIP₂ sensitivity.

Quantitative properties and receptor reserve of the IP(3) and calcium branch of G(q)-coupled receptor signaling

G_q-coupled plasma membrane receptors activate phospholipase C (PLC), which hydrolyzes membrane phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) into the second messengers inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃) and diacylglycerol (DAG). This leads to calcium release, protein kinase C (PKC) activation, and sometimes PIP₂ depletion. To understand mechanisms governing these diverging signals and to determine which of these signals is responsible for the inhibition of KCNQ2/3 (K_V7.2/7.3) potassium channels, we monitored levels of PIP₂, IP₃, and calcium in single living cells. DAG and PKC are monitored in our companion paper (Falkenburger et al. 2013. J. Gen. Physiol.http://dx.doi.org/10.1085/jgp.201210887). The results extend our previous kinetic model of G_q-coupled receptor signaling to IP₃ and calcium. We find that activation of low-abundance endogenous P2Y₂ receptors by a saturating concentration of uridine 5′-triphosphate (UTP; 100 µM) leads to calcium release but not to PIP₂ depletion. Activation of overexpressed M₁ muscarinic receptors by 10 µM Oxo-M leads to a similar calcium release but also depletes PIP₂. KCNQ2/3 channels are inhibited by Oxo-M (by 85%), but not by UTP (<1%). These differences can be attributed purely to differences in receptor abundance. Full amplitude calcium responses can be elicited even after PIP₂ was partially depleted by overexpressed inducible phosphatidylinositol 5-phosphatases, suggesting that very low amounts of IP₃ suffice to elicit a full calcium release. Hence, weak PLC activation can elicit robust calcium signals without net PIP₂ depletion or KCNQ2/3 channel inhibition.

Voltage-gated ion channel modulation by lipids: insights from molecular dynamics simulations

Cells commonly use lipids to modulate the function of ion channels. The lipid content influences the amplitude of the ionic current and changes the probability of voltage-gated ion channels being in the active or in the resting states. Experimental findings inferred from a variety of techniques and molecular dynamics studies have revealed a direct interaction between the lipid headgroups and the ion channel residues, suggesting an influence on the ion channel function. On the other hand the alteration of the lipids may in principle modify the overall electrostatic environment of the channel, and hence the transmembrane potential, leading to an indirect modulation, i.e. a global effect. Here we have investigated the structural and dynamical properties of the voltage-gated potassium channel Kv1.2 embedded in bilayers with modified upper or lower leaflet compositions corresponding to realistic biological scenarios: the first relates to the effects of sphingomyelinase, an enzyme that modifies the composition of lipids of the outer membrane leaflets, and the second to the effect of the presence of a small fraction of PIP2, a highly negatively charged lipid known to modulate voltage-gated channel function. Our molecular dynamics simulations do not enable to exclude the global effect mechanism in the former case. For the latter, however, it is shown that local interactions between the ion channel and the lipid headgroups are key-elements of the modulation.

TRPM4

TRPM4 is a Ca(2+)-activated nonselective cation channel. The channel is activated by an increase of intracellular Ca(2+) and is regulated by several factors including temperature and Pi(4,5)P2. TRPM4 allows Na(+) entry into the cell upon activation, but is completely impermeable to Ca(2+). Unlike TRPM5, its closest relative in the transient receptor potential family, TRPM4 proteins are widely expressed in the body. Currents with properties that are reminiscent of TRPM4 have been described in a variety of tissues since the advent of the patch clamp technology, but their physiological role is only beginning to be clarified with the increasing characterization of knockout mouse models for TRPM4. Furthermore, mutations in the TRPM4 gene have been associated with cardiac conduction disorders in human patients. This review aims to overview the currently available data on the functional properties of TRPM4 and the current understanding of its physiological role in healthy and diseased tissue.

Phosphoinositides alter lipid bilayer properties

Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂), which constitutes ∼1% of the plasma membrane phospholipid, plays a key role in membrane-delimited signaling. PIP₂ regulates structurally and functionally diverse membrane proteins, including voltage- and ligand-gated ion channels, inwardly rectifying ion channels, transporters, and receptors. In some cases, the regulation is known to involve specific lipid–protein interactions, but the mechanisms by which PIP₂ regulates many of its various targets remain to be fully elucidated. Because many PIP₂ targets are membrane-spanning proteins, we explored whether the phosphoinositides might alter bilayer physical properties such as curvature and elasticity, which would alter the equilibrium between membrane protein conformational states—and thereby protein function. Taking advantage of the gramicidin A (gA) channels’ sensitivity to changes in lipid bilayer properties, we used gA-based fluorescence quenching and single-channel assays to examine the effects of long-chain PIP₂s (brain PIP₂, which is predominantly 1-stearyl-2-arachidonyl-PIP₂, and dioleoyl-PIP₂) on bilayer properties. When premixed with dioleoyl-phosphocholine at 2 mol %, both long-chain PIP₂s produced similar changes in gA channel function (bilayer properties); when applied through the aqueous solution, however, brain PIP₂ was a more potent modifier than dioleoyl-PIP₂. Given the widespread use of short-chain dioctanoyl-phosphoinositides, we also examined the effects of diC₈-phosphoinositol (PI), PI(4,5)P₂, PI(3,5)P₂, PI(3,4)P₂, and PI(3,4,5)P₃. The diC₈ phosphoinositides, except for PI(3,5)P₂, altered bilayer properties with potencies that decreased with increasing head group charge. Nonphosphoinositide diC₈ phospholipids generally were more potent bilayer modifiers than the polyphosphoinositides. These results show that physiological increases or decreases in plasma membrane PIP₂ levels, as a result of activation of PI kinases or phosphatases, are likely to alter lipid bilayer properties, in addition to any other effects they may have. The results further show that exogenous PIP₂, as well as structural analogues that differ in acyl chain length or phosphorylation state, alters lipid bilayer properties at the concentrations used in many cell physiological experiments.

Dynamic PIP2 interactions with voltage sensor elements contribute to KCNQ2 channel gating

The S4 segment and the S4-S5 linker of voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels are crucial for voltage sensing. Previous studies on the Shaker and Kv1.2 channels have shown that phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) exerts opposing effects on Kv channels, up-regulating the current amplitude, while decreasing the voltage sensitivity. Interactions between PIP2 and the S4 segment or the S4-S5 linker in the closed state have been highlighted to explain the effects of PIP2 on voltage sensitivity. Here, we show that PIP2 preferentially interacts with the S4-S5 linker in the open-state KCNQ2 (Kv7.2) channel, whereas it contacts the S2-S3 loop in the closed state. These interactions are different from the PIP2-Shaker and PIP2-Kv1.2 interactions. Consistently, PIP2 exerts different effects on KCNQ2 relative to the Shaker and Kv1.2 channels; PIP2 up-regulates both the current amplitude and voltage sensitivity of the KCNQ2 channel. Disruption of the interaction of PIP2 with the S4-S5 linker by a single mutation decreases the voltage sensitivity and current amplitude, whereas disruption of the interaction with the S2-S3 loop does not alter voltage sensitivity. These results provide insight into the mechanism of PIP2 action on KCNQ channels. In the closed state, PIP2 is anchored at the S2-S3 loop; upon channel activation, PIP2 interacts with the S4-S5 linker and is involved in channel gating.

Post-translational regulation of P2X receptor channels: modulation by phospholipids

P2X receptor channels mediate fast excitatory signaling by ATP and play major roles in sensory transduction, neuro-immune communication and inflammatory response. P2X receptors constitute a gene family of calcium-permeable ATP-gated cation channels therefore the regulation of P2X signaling is critical for both membrane potential and intracellular calcium homeostasis. Phosphoinositides (PIP_n) are anionic signaling phospholipids that act as functional regulators of many types of ion channels. Direct PIP_n binding was demonstrated for several ligand- or voltage-gated ion channels, however no generic motif emerged to accurately predict lipid-protein binding sites. This review presents what is currently known about the modulation of the different P2X subtypes by phospholipids and about critical determinants underlying their sensitivity to PIP_n levels in the plasma membrane. All functional mammalian P2X subtypes tested, with the notable exception of P2X5, have been shown to be positively modulated by PIP_n, i.e., homomeric P2X1, P2X2, P2X3, P2X4, and P2X7, as well as heteromeric P2X1/5 and P2X2/3 receptors. Based on various results reported on the aforementioned subtypes including mutagenesis of the prototypical PIP_n-sensitive P2X4 and PIP_n-insensitive P2X5 receptor subtypes, an increasing amount of functional, biochemical and structural evidence converges on the modulatory role of a short polybasic domain located in the proximal C-terminus of P2X subunits. This linear motif, semi-conserved in the P2X family, seems necessary and sufficient for encoding direct modulation of ATP-gated channels by PIP_n. Furthermore, the physiological impact of the regulation of ionotropic purinergic responses by phospholipids on pain pathways was recently revealed in the context of native crosstalks between phospholipase C (PLC)-linked metabotropic receptors and P2X receptor channels in dorsal root ganglion sensory neurons and microglia.