Distribution and functional relevance of connexins in renin-producing cells

Renal Endothelial Single-Cell Transcriptomics Reveals Spatiotemporal Regulation and Divergent Roles of Differential Gene Transcription and Alternative Splicing in Murine Diabetic Nephropathy

Endothelial cell (EC) injury is a crucial contributor to the progression of diabetic kidney disease (DKD), but the specific EC populations and mechanisms involved remain elusive. Kidney ECs (n = 5464) were collected at three timepoints from diabetic BTBRob/ob mice and non-diabetic littermates. Their heterogeneity, transcriptional changes, and alternative splicing during DKD progression were mapped using SmartSeq2 single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) and elucidated through pathway, network, and gene ontology enrichment analyses. We identified 13 distinct transcriptional EC phenotypes corresponding to different kidney vessel subtypes, confirmed through in situ hybridization and immunofluorescence. EC subtypes along nephrons displayed extensive zonation related to their functions. Differential gene expression analyses in peritubular and glomerular ECs in DKD underlined the regulation of DKD-relevant pathways including EIF2 signaling, oxidative phosphorylation, and IGF1 signaling. Importantly, this revealed the differential alteration of these pathways between the two EC subtypes and changes during disease progression. Furthermore, glomerular and peritubular ECs also displayed aberrant and dynamic alterations in alternative splicing (AS), which is strongly associated with DNA repair. Strikingly, genes displaying differential transcription or alternative splicing participate in divergent biological processes. Our study reveals the spatiotemporal regulation of gene transcription and AS linked to DKD progression, providing insight into pathomechanisms and clues to novel therapeutic targets for DKD treatment.

Endothelium-Derived Hyperpolarizing Factor and Myoendothelial Coupling: The in vivo Perspective

The endothelium controls vascular tone adopting blood flow to tissue needs. It releases chemical mediators [e.g., nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandins (PG)] and exerts appreciable dilation through smooth muscle hyperpolarization, thus termed endothelium-dependent hyperpolarization (EDH). Initially, EDH was attributed to release of a factor, but later it was suggested that smooth muscle hyperpolarization might be derived from radial spread of an initial endothelial hyperpolarization through heterocellular channels coupling these vascular cells. The channels are indeed present and formed by connexins that enrich in gap junctions (GJ). In vitro data suggest that myoendothelial coupling underlies EDH-type dilations as evidenced by blocking experiments as well as simultaneous, merely identical membrane potential changes in endothelial and smooth muscle cells (SMCs), which is indicative of coupling through ohmic resistors. However, connexin-deficient animals do not display any attenuation of EDH-type dilations in vivo, and endothelial and SMCs exhibit distinct and barely superimposable membrane potential changes exerted by different means in vivo. Even if studied in the exact same artery EDH-type dilation exhibits distinct features in vitro and in vivo: in isometrically mounted vessels, it is rather weak and depends on myoendothelial coupling through connexin40 (Cx40), whereas in vivo as well as in vitro under isobaric conditions it is powerful and independent of myoendothelial coupling through Cx40. It is concluded that EDH-type dilations are distinct and a significant dependence on myoendothelial coupling in vitro does not reflect the situation under physiologic conditions in vivo. Myoendothelial coupling may act as a backup mechanism that is uncovered in the absence of the powerful EDH-type response and possibly reflects a situation in a pathophysiologic environment.

Beyond the Paradigm: Novel Functions of Renin-Producing Cells

The juxtaglomerular renin-producing cells (RPC) of the kidney are referred to as the major source of circulating renin. Renin is the limiting factor in renin-angiotensin system (RAS), which represents a proteolytic cascade in blood plasma that plays a central role in the regulation of blood pressure. Further cells disseminated in the entire organism express renin at a low level as part of tissue RASs, which are thought to locally modulate the effects of systemic RAS. In recent years, it became increasingly clear that the renal RPC are involved in developmental, physiological, and pathophysiological processes outside RAS. Based on recent experimental evidence, a novel concept emerges postulating that next to their traditional role, the RPC have non-canonical RAS-independent progenitor and renoprotective functions. Moreover, the RPC are part of a widespread renin lineage population, which may act as a global stem cell pool coordinating homeostatic, stress, and regenerative responses throughout the organism. This review focuses on the RAS-unrelated functions of RPC - a dynamic research area that increasingly attracts attention.

Juxtaglomerular Cell Tumor: Reviewing a Cryptic Cause of Surgically Correctable Hypertension

Juxtaglomerular cell tumor (JGCT), or reninoma, is a typically benign neoplasm generally affecting adolescents and young adults due to modified smooth muscle cells from the afferent arteriole of the juxtaglomerular apparatus. Patients experience symptoms related to hypertension and hypoka-lemia due to renin-secretion by the tumor. MRI, PET, CT, and renal vein catheterizations can be used to capture JGCTs, with laparoscopic ultrasonography being most cost-efective. Surgical removal is the best option for management; electrolyte imbalances are a potential complication which may be assuaged via pre-surgical administration of aliskiren, a renin inhibitor. Considering the vast etiology for hypertension and rarity of JGCT, the diagnosing physician must have a high index of suspicion for JGCT. Early recognition and management can help prevent cardiovascular or pregnancy complications and fatalities, vascular invasion and metastasis, improve quality of life, and limit socioeconomic liabilities. Herein we review the epidemiology, genetics, histopathol-ogy, clinical presentation, and management of this rare condition. The impact of genetics on prognosis warrant further research.

Gap junction proteins are key drivers of endocrine function

It has long been known that the main secretory cells of exocrine and endocrine glands are connected by gap junctions, made by a variety of connexin species that ensure their electrical and metabolic coupling. Experiments in culture systems and animal models have since provided increasing evidence that connexin signaling contributes to control the biosynthesis and release of secretory products, as well as to the life and death of secretory cells. More recently, genetic studies have further provided the first lines of evidence that connexins also control the function of human glands, which are central to the pathogenesis of major endocrine diseases. Here, we summarize the recent information gathered on connexin signaling in these systems, since the last reviews on the topic, with particular regard to the pancreatic beta cells which produce insulin, and the renal cells which produce renin. These cells are keys to the development of various forms of diabetes and hypertension, respectively, and combine to account for the exploding, worldwide prevalence of the metabolic syndrome. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Gap Junction Proteins edited by Jean Claude Herve.

Connexins and their channels in inflammation

Inflammation may be caused by a variety of factors and is a hallmark of a plethora of acute and chronic diseases. The purpose of inflammation is to eliminate the initial cell injury trigger, to clear out dead cells from damaged tissue and to initiate tissue regeneration. Despite the wealth of knowledge regarding the involvement of cellular communication in inflammation, studies on the role of connexin-based channels in this process have only begun to emerge in the last few years. In this paper, a state-of-the-art overview of the effects of inflammation on connexin signaling is provided. Vice versa, the involvement of connexins and their channels in inflammation will be discussed by relying on studies that use a variety of experimental tools, such as genetically modified animals, small interfering RNA and connexin-based channel blockers. A better understanding of the importance of connexin signaling in inflammation may open up towards clinical perspectives.

Descending Vasa Recta Endothelial Membrane Potential Response Requires Pericyte Communication

Using dual-cell electrophysiological recording, we examined the routes for equilibration of membrane potential between the pericytes and endothelia that comprise the descending vasa recta (DVR) wall. We measured equilibration between pericytes in intact vessels, between pericytes and endothelium in intact vessels and between pericytes physically separated from the endothelium. Dual pericyte recording on the abluminal surface of DVR showed that both resting potential and subsequent time-dependent voltage fluctuations after vasoconstrictor stimulation remained closely equilibrated, regardless of the agonist employed (angiotensin II, vasopressin or endothelin 1). When pericytes where removed from the vessel wall but retained physical contact with one another, membrane potential responses were also highly coordinated. In contrast, responses of pericytes varied independently when they were isolated from both the endothelium and from contact with one another. When pericytes and endothelium were in contact, their resting potentials were similar and their temporal responses to stimulation were highly coordinated. After completely isolating pericytes from the endothelium, their mean resting potentials became discordant. Finally, complete endothelial isolation eliminated all membrane potential responses to angiotensin II. We conclude that cell-to-cell transmission through the endothelium is not needed for pericytes to equilibrate their membrane potentials. AngII dependent responses of DVR endothelia may originate from gap junction coupling to pericytes rather than via receptor dependent signaling in the endothelium, per se.

Communication Through Gap Junctions in the Endothelium

A swarm of fish displays a collective behavior (swarm behavior) and moves "en masse" despite the huge number of individual animals. In analogy, organ function is supported by a huge number of cells that act in an orchestrated fashion and this applies also to vascular cells along the vessel length. It is obvious that communication is required to achieve this vital goal. Gap junctions with their modular bricks, connexins (Cxs), provide channels that interlink the cytosol of adjacent cells by a pore sealed against the extracellular space. This allows the transfer of ions and charge and thereby the travel of membrane potential changes along the vascular wall. The endothelium provides a low-resistance pathway that depends crucially on connexin40 which is required for long-distance conduction of dilator signals in the microcirculation. The experimental evidence for membrane potential changes synchronizing vascular behavior is manifold but the functional verification of a physiologic role is still open. Other molecules may also be exchanged that possibly contribute to the synchronization (eg, Ca(2+)). Recent data suggest that vascular Cxs have more functions than just facilitating communication. As pharmacological tools to modulate gap junctions are lacking, Cx-deficient mice provide currently the standard to unravel their vascular functions. These include arteriolar dilation during functional hyperemia, hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction, vascular collateralization after ischemia, and feedback inhibition on renin secretion in the kidney.

Connexins, Pannexins, and Their Channels in Fibroproliferative Diseases

Cellular and molecular mechanisms of wound healing, tissue repair, and fibrogenesis are established in different organs and are essential for the maintenance of function and tissue integrity after cell injury. These mechanisms are also involved in a plethora of fibroproliferative diseases or organ-specific fibrotic disorders, all of which are associated with the excessive deposition of extracellular matrix components. Fibroblasts, which are key cells in tissue repair and fibrogenesis, rely on communicative cellular networks to ensure efficient control of these processes and to prevent abnormal accumulation of extracellular matrix into the tissue. Despite the significant impact on human health, and thus the epidemiologic relevance, there is still no effective treatment for most fibrosis-related diseases. This paper provides an overview of current concepts and mechanisms involved in the participation of cellular communication via connexin-based pores as well as pannexin-based channels in the processes of tissue repair and fibrogenesis in chronic diseases. Understanding these mechanisms may contribute to the development of new therapeutic strategies to clinically manage fibroproliferative diseases and organ-specific fibrotic disorders.

Mind the gap: connexins and cell-cell communication in the diabetic kidney

Connexins, assembled as a hexameric connexon, form a transmembrane hemichannel that provides a conduit for paracrine signalling of small molecules and ions to regulate the activity and function of adjacent cells. When hemichannels align and associate with similar channels on opposing cells, they form a continuous aqueous pore or gap junction, allowing the direct transmission of metabolic and electrical signals between coupled cells. Regulation of gap junction synthesis and channel activity is critical for cell function, and a number of diseases can be attributed to changes in the expression/function of these important proteins. Diabetic nephropathy is associated with several complex metabolic and inflammatory responses characterised by defects at the molecular, cellular and tissue level. In both type 1 and type 2 diabetes, glycaemic injury of the kidney is the leading cause of end-stage renal failure, a consequence of multiple aetiologies, including increased deposition of extracellular matrix, glomerular hyperfiltration, albuminuria and tubulointerstitial fibrosis. In diabetic nephropathy, loss of connexin mediated cell-cell communication within the nephron may represent an early sign of disease; however, our current knowledge of the role of connexins in the diabetic kidney is sparse. This review highlights recent evidence demonstrating that maintenance of connexin-mediated cell-cell communication could benefit region-specific renal function in diabetic nephropathy and suggests that these proteins should be viewed as a tantalising novel target for therapeutic intervention.

Control of renin secretion from kidneys with renin cell hyperplasia

In states of loss-of-function mutations of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, kidneys develop a strong hyperplasia of renin-producing cells. Those additional renin cells are located outside the classic juxtaglomerular areas, mainly in the walls of preglomerular vessels and most prominently in multilayers surrounding afferent arterioles. Since the functional behavior of those ectopic renin cells is yet unknown, we aimed to characterize the control of renin secretion from kidneys with renin cell hyperplasia. As a model, we used kidneys from mice lacking aldosterone synthase (AS⁻/⁻ mice), which displayed 10-fold elevations of renin mRNA and plasma renin concentrations. On the absolute level, renin secretion from isolated AS⁻/⁻ kidneys was more than 10-fold increased over wild-type kidneys. On the relative level, the stimulation of renin secretion by the β-adrenergic activator isoproterenol or by lowering of the concentration of extracellular Ca²⁺ was very similar between the two genotypes. In addition, the inhibitory effects of ANG II and of perfusion pressure were similar between the two genotypes. Deletion of connexin40 blunted the pressure dependency of renin secretion and the stimulatory effect of low extracellular Ca²⁺ on renin secretion in the same manner in kidneys of AS⁻/⁻ mice as in wild-type mice. Our findings suggest a high degree of functional similarity between renin cells originating during development and located at different positions in the adult kidney. They also suggest a high similarity in the expression of membrane proteins relevant for the control of renin secretion, such as β₁-adrenergic receptors, ANG II type 1 receptors, and connexin40.

Connexin 43 is not essential for the control of renin synthesis and secretion

The juxtaglomerular areas of mammalian kidneys express the gap junction proteins connexin 37, 40, 43, and 45. Among these, Cx40 plays a major role for the function of juxtaglomerular renin-expressing cells, while Cx37 and Cx45 appear to be less relevant in this context. Since the role of the remaining Cx43 for the function of renin expression is not well understood, this study aimed to systematically characterize the direct role of Cx43 for renin expression and secretion. For this aim, we generated mice with endothelium and with renin cell-specific deletions of Cx43, and we characterized the regulation of renin expression and renin secretion in the kidneys of these mice on normal salt diet and during chronic challenge of the renin system by pretreatment of mice with a low-salt diet in combination with an angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitor. We found that renal renin mRNA abundance, plasma renin concentration, and systolic blood pressure did not differ between wild-type, Cx43(fl/fl) Ren1d(+/Cre) mice as well as Cx43(fl/fl) Tie-2(+/Cre) mice under basal conditions nor under chronic stimulation by salt depletion. The localization of renin-expressing cells was also regular in kidneys of all genotypes, and moreover, regulation of renin secretion by beta-adrenergic stimulation and renal perfusion pressure measured in isolated perfused kidneys of Cx43(fl/fl) Ren1d(+/Cre) and Cx43(fl/fl) Tie-2(+/Cre) mice was not different from control. We infer from these results that Cx43 plays if at all only a minor role for the functional control of renin-producing cells in the kidney.