1
|
Lee CE, Godwin HJ, Drieghe D. The jingle fallacy in comprehension tests for reading. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0306466. [PMID: 38968309 PMCID: PMC11226005 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0306466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/07/2024] Open
Abstract
The Jingle fallacy is the false assumption that instruments which share the same name measure the same underlying construct. In this experiment, we focus on the comprehension subtests of the Nelson Denny Reading Test (NDRT) and the Wechsler Individual Achievement Test (WIAT-II). 91 university students read passages for comprehension whilst their eye movements were recorded. Participants took part in two experimental blocks of which the order was counterbalanced, one with higher comprehension demands and one with lower comprehension demands. We assumed that tests measuring comprehension would be able to predict differences observed in eye movement patterns as a function of varying comprehension demands. Overall, readers were able to adapt their reading strategy to read more slowly, making more and longer fixations, coupled with shorter saccades when comprehension demands were higher. Within an experimental block, high scorers on the NDRT were able to consistently increase their pace of reading over time for both higher and lower comprehension demands, whereas low scorers approached a threshold where they could not continue to increase their reading speed or further reduce the number of fixations to read a text, even when comprehension demands were low. Individual differences based on the WIAT-II did not explain similar patterns. The NDRT comprehension test was therefore more predictive of differences in the reading patterns of skilled adult readers in response to comprehension demands than the WIAT-II (which also suffered from low reliability). Our results revealed that these different comprehension measures should not be used interchangeably, and researchers should be cautious when choosing reading comprehension tests for research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte E. Lee
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Hayward J. Godwin
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Denis Drieghe
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Schwalm L, Radach R. Parafoveal syntactic processing from word N + 2 during reading: the case of gender-specific German articles. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2023; 87:2511-2532. [PMID: 37209214 PMCID: PMC10497434 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-023-01833-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Previous research has suggested that some syntactic information such as word class can be processed parafoveally during reading. However, it is still unclear to what extent early syntactic cueing within noun phrases can facilitate word processing during dynamic reading. Two experiments (total N = 72) were designed to address this question using a gaze-contingent boundary change paradigm to manipulate the syntactic fit within a nominal phrase. Either the article (Experiment 1) or the noun (Experiment 2) was manipulated in the parafovea, resulting in a syntactic mismatch, depending on the condition. Results indicated a substantial elevation of viewing times on both parts of the noun phrase when conflicting syntactic information had been present in the parafovea. In Experiment 1, the article was also fixated more often in the syntactic mismatch condition. These results provide direct evidence of parafoveal syntactic processing. Based on the early time-course of this effect, it can be concluded that grammatical gender is used to generate constraints for the processing of upcoming nouns. To our knowledge, these results also provide the first evidence that syntactic information can be extracted from a parafoveal word N + 2.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Schwalm
- University of Wuppertal, Max-Horkheimer-Str. 20, 42119 Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Ralph Radach
- University of Wuppertal, Max-Horkheimer-Str. 20, 42119 Wuppertal, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ye G, Zhang S, Huang X, Mo L. The influence of methods of selecting concepts of an expository text on different reading representations' predictive ability. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2023; 241:104098. [PMID: 38035510 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.104098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 11/27/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we compared two experimental methods of selecting terms in expository text to generate reading representations and tested how well these reading representations predicted reading comprehension. The two experimental methods were the traditional method of using all terms (all keywords) to create participants' representation networks, and the terms categorization (TC) method of using only important terms (core and branch words). Representation networks were assessed using participants' adjacency scores, ratings of relatedness in pairs of terms, and using summary (summary writing) by all turms. An in-subject design was performed in experiments 1 and 2, and an inter-subject design was performed in experiment 3 to test the hypothesis. With the same sample in exp1 and epx2, a different sample in each exp3. Experiment 1 showed that when using only the traditional way of selecting terms, adjacency was better than relatedness in predicting reading comprehension. Reading representations generated based on the summary method could not predict participants' reading comprehension ability, so this method was excluded from subsequent studies. Experiment 2 showed that the terms selected in Experiment 1 were stronger predictors of reading comprehension when the word pairs included a core term (central to understanding of full text) or a branch term (key to understanding paragraph), relative to a detail term (not affect the understanding full text). Experiment 3 found that whereas the two methods were equally effective in generating representations measured by adjacency, TC was superior in generating representations measured by relatedness. These conclusions have important implications for future research and application.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guozhen Ye
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shijia Zhang
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xitong Huang
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lei Mo
- Center for Studies of Psychological Application, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Mental Health and Cognitive Science, School of Psychology, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, China.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Chiu TY, Drieghe D. The role of visual crowding in eye movements during reading: Effects of text spacing. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:2834-2858. [PMID: 37821744 PMCID: PMC10600290 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02787-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Visual crowding, generally defined as the deleterious influence of clutter on visual discrimination, is a form of inhibitory interaction between nearby objects. While the role of crowding in reading has been established in psychophysics research using rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP) paradigms, how crowding affects additional processes involved in natural reading, including parafoveal processing and saccade targeting, remains unclear. The current study investigated crowding effects on reading via two eye-tracking experiments. Experiment 1 was a sentence-reading experiment incorporating an eye-contingent boundary change in which reader's parafoveal processing was quantified through comparing reading times after valid or invalid information was presented in the parafovea. Letter spacing was jointly manipulated to compare how crowding affects parafoveal processing. Experiment 2 was a passage-reading experiment with a line spacing manipulation. In addition to replicating previously observed letter spacing effects on global reading parameters (i.e., more but shorter fixations with wider spacing), Experiment 1 found an interaction between preview validity and letter spacing indicating that the efficiency of parafoveal processing was constrained by crowding and visual acuity. Experiment 2 found reliable but subtle influences of line spacing. Participants had shorter fixation durations, higher skipping probabilities, and less accurate return sweeps when line spacing was increased. In addition to extending the literature on the role of crowding to reading in ecologically valid scenarios, the current results inform future research on characterizing the influence of crowding in natural reading and comparing effects of crowding across reader populations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-Yao Chiu
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK.
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State University, 225 Psychology Building, 1835 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA.
| | - Denis Drieghe
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Sui L, Dirix N, Woumans E, Duyck W. GECO-CN: Ghent Eye-tracking COrpus of sentence reading for Chinese-English bilinguals. Behav Res Methods 2023; 55:2743-2763. [PMID: 35896891 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-022-01931-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The current work presents the very first eye-tracking corpus of natural reading by Chinese-English bilinguals, whose two languages entail different writing systems and orthographies. Participants read an entire novel in these two languages, presented in paragraphs on screen. Half of the participants first read half of the novel in their native language (Simplified Chinese) and then the rest of the novel in their second language (English), while the other half read in the reverse language order. This article presents some important basic descriptive statistics of reading times and compares the difference between reading in the two languages. However, this unique eye-tracking corpus also allows the exploration of theories of language processing and bilingualism. Importantly, it provides a solid and reliable ground for studying the difference between Eastern and Western languages, understanding the impact and consequences of having a completely different first language on bilingual processing. The materials are freely available for use by researchers interested in (bilingual) reading.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Longjiao Sui
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, 9000, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Nicolas Dirix
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Evy Woumans
- Department of Translation, Interpreting and Communication, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Wouter Duyck
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
- The Accreditation Organisation of the Netherlands and Flanders (NVAO), Den Haag, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Huettig F, Ferreira F. The Myth of Normal Reading. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2023; 18:863-870. [PMID: 36355578 PMCID: PMC10336603 DOI: 10.1177/17456916221127226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
We argue that the educational and psychological sciences must embrace the diversity of reading rather than chase the phantom of normal reading behavior. We critically discuss the research practice of asking participants in experiments to read "normally." We then draw attention to the large cross-cultural and linguistic diversity around the world and consider the enormous diversity of reading situations and goals. Finally, we observe that people bring a huge diversity of brains and experiences to the reading task. This leads to four implications: First, there are important lessons for how to conduct psycholinguistic experiments; second, we need to move beyond Anglocentric reading research and produce models of reading that reflect the large cross-cultural diversity of languages and types of writing systems; third, we must acknowledge that there are multiple ways of reading and reasons for reading, and none of them is normal or better or a "gold standard"; and fourth, we must stop stigmatizing individuals who read differently and for different reasons, and there should be increased focus on teaching the ability to extract information relevant to the person's goals. What is important is not how well people decode written language and how fast people read but what people comprehend given their own stated goals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Falk Huettig
- Psychology of Language Department, Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- Department of Language and Communication, Radboud University Nijmegen
| | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Xue H, Zhang L, Wang J, Liu W, Liu S, Ming D. Dynamic eye avoidance patterns in the high autistic traits group: An eye-tracking study. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1086282. [PMID: 37032943 PMCID: PMC10079916 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1086282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Reduced fixation to the eye area is the main characteristic of social deficits associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder; a similar pattern may exist in individuals with high autistic traits. However, their scanning patterns to the eye area of emotional faces are still unclear on the time scale. Methods In the present study, we recruited 46 participants and divided them into the high autistic traits (HAT) group (23 participants) and the low autistic traits (LAT) group (20 participants) based on their Autism Spectrum Quotient (AQ) scores. Moreover, we captured their eye movement patterns when observing different angular emotional faces. We extracted the proportional fixation time to the eye area under different time windows. Results The results showed that the fixation time of the HAT group was always significantly smaller than that of the LAT group (p < 0.05), and the difference between the two groups increased in the middle and late stages of face presentation. The results of the linear regression analysis showed that the proportional fixation time was negatively correlated with AQ scores (p < 0.05), indicating that the proportional fixation time to the eye area could be a potential indicator to measure the level of autistic traits. We then calculated the latency to orient the eye area and the latency to disengage the eye area to explore the priority of observation of the eyes. The results showed that compared with the LAT group, the HAT group has a longer latency to orient the eye area (p < 0.05) and has longer latency to disengage the eye area (p < 0.05), illustrating that the HAT group saw the eyes more slowly and left them faster.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huiqin Xue
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Ludan Zhang
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Junling Wang
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
- Children’s Hospital, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
- *Correspondence: Wei Liu,
| | - Shuang Liu
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
- Shuang Liu,
| | - Dong Ming
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Hahn M, Keller F. Modeling task effects in human reading with neural network-based attention. Cognition 2023; 230:105289. [PMID: 36208565 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2022.105289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Research on human reading has long documented that reading behavior shows task-specific effects, but it has been challenging to build general models predicting what reading behavior humans will show in a given task. We introduce NEAT, a computational model of the allocation of attention in human reading, based on the hypothesis that human reading optimizes a tradeoff between economy of attention and success at a task. Our model is implemented using contemporary neural network modeling techniques, and makes explicit and testable predictions about how the allocation of attention varies across different tasks. We test this in an eyetracking study comparing two versions of a reading comprehension task, finding that our model successfully accounts for reading behavior across the tasks. Our work thus provides evidence that task effects can be modeled as optimal adaptation to task demands.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Hahn
- Department of Linguistics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, United States; Collaborative Research Center 1102, Saarland University, Saarbrücken, 66123, Germany.
| | - Frank Keller
- School of Informatics, University of Edinburgh, 10 Crichton Street, Edinburgh, EH8 9AB, United Kingdom.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Developmental trajectories of eye movements in oral and silent reading for beginning readers: a longitudinal investigation. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18708. [PMID: 36333460 PMCID: PMC9636221 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-23420-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Eye movements provide a sensitive window into cognitive processing during reading. In the present study, we investigated beginning readers' longitudinal changes in temporal and spatial measures of eye movements during oral versus silent reading, the extent to which variation in eye movements is attributable to individual differences and text differences, and the functional form of growth trajectories of eye-movement variables. Data were from 363 English-speaking children (52% male; 59.8% White) in the US who were followed longitudinally from Grade 1 to Grade 3. Results showed a rapid decrease in temporal eye-movement measures (e.g., first fixation) and an increase in spatial eye-movement measures (initial landing position) in both oral and silent reading. The majority of variance in eye movements was attributable to individual differences whereas some variance in initial landing position was due to text differences. Most eye-movement measures had nonlinear growth trajectories where fast development tapered off near the end of Grade 3 while initial fixation count and total gaze count in silent reading had a linear growth trajectory. The findings provide a first large-scale look into the developmental progression of eye movements during oral and silent reading during a critical period when reading skills rapidly develop.
Collapse
|
10
|
Parafoveal processing of repeated words during reading. Psychon Bull Rev 2022; 29:1451-1460. [PMID: 35217984 PMCID: PMC9436839 DOI: 10.3758/s13423-021-02054-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
In an eye-tracking experiment during reading, we examined the repetition effect, whereby words that are repeated in the same paragraph receive shorter fixation durations. Target words that were either high-frequency or low-frequency words and of which the parafoveal preview was either correct or with all letters replaced were embedded three times in the same paragraph. Shorter fixation times and higher skipping rates were observed for high-frequency compared to low-frequency words, words for which the parafoveal preview was correct versus incorrect, and as the word was being repeated more often. An interaction between frequency and repetition indicated that the reduction in fixation times due to repetition was more pronounced for low-frequency words. We also observed influences of word repetition on parafoveal processing, as repeated words were skipped more often. An interaction between parafoveal preview and repetition indicated an absent repetition effect when the preview was incorrect, but this effect was short lived, as it was restricted to the first fixation duration on the target word.
Collapse
|
11
|
Oyarzo P, D Preiss D, Cosmelli D. Attentional and meta-cognitive processes underlying mind wandering episodes during continuous naturalistic reading are associated with specific changes in eye behavior. Psychophysiology 2022; 59:e13994. [PMID: 35007343 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.13994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Although eye movements during reading have been studied extensively, their variation due to attentional fluctuations such as spontaneous distractions is not well understood. Here we used a naturalistic reading task combined with an attentional sampling method to examine the effects of mind wandering-and the subsequent metacognitive awareness of its occurrence-on eye movements and pupillary dynamics. Our goal was to better understand the attentional and metacognitive processes involved in the initiation and termination of mind wandering episodes. Our results show that changes in eye behavior are consistent with underlying independent cognitive mechanisms working in tandem to sustain the attentional resources required for focused reading. In addition to changes in blink frequency, blink duration, and the number of saccades, variations in eye movements during unaware distractions point to a loss of the perceptual asymmetry that is usually observed in attentive, left-to-right reading. Also, before self-detected distractions, we observed a specific increase in pupillary diameter, indicating the likely presence of an anticipatory autonomic process that could contribute to becoming aware of the current attentional state. These findings stress the need for further research tackling the temporal structure of attentional dynamics during tasks that have a significant real-world impact.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Oyarzo
- Department of Education and Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - David D Preiss
- Escuela de Psicología, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Diego Cosmelli
- Escuela de Psicología, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Interdisciplinary Center for Neuroscience, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Whitford V, Joanisse MF. Eye Movement Measures of Within-Language and Cross-Language Activation During Reading in Monolingual and Bilingual Children and Adults: A Focus on Neighborhood Density Effects. Front Psychol 2021; 12:674007. [PMID: 34777083 PMCID: PMC8578698 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.674007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We used eye movement measures of first-language (L1) and second-language (L2) paragraph reading to investigate how the activation of multiple lexical candidates, both within and across languages, influences visual word recognition in four different age and language groups: (1) monolingual children; (2) monolingual young adults; (3) bilingual children; and (4) bilingual young adults. More specifically, we focused on within-language and cross-language orthographic neighborhood density effects, while controlling for the potentially confounding effects of orthographic neighborhood frequency. We found facilitatory within-language orthographic neighborhood density effects (i.e., words were easier to process when they had many vs. few orthographic neighbors, evidenced by shorter fixation durations) across the L1 and L2, with larger effects in children vs. adults (especially the bilingual ones) during L1 reading. Similarly, we found facilitatory cross-language neighborhood density effects across the L1 and L2, with no modulatory influence of age or language group. Taken together, our findings suggest that word recognition benefits from the simultaneous activation of visually similar word forms during naturalistic reading, with some evidence of larger effects in children and particularly those whose words may have differentially lower baseline activation levels and/or weaker links between word-related information due to divided language exposure: bilinguals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Whitford
- Department of Psychology, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, Canada
| | - Marc F. Joanisse
- Department of Psychology, Brain and Mind Institute, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Ghiglino D, Willemse C, De Tommaso D, Wykowska A. Mind the Eyes: Artificial Agents' Eye Movements Modulate Attentional Engagement and Anthropomorphic Attribution. Front Robot AI 2021; 8:642796. [PMID: 34124174 PMCID: PMC8192967 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2021.642796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Artificial agents are on their way to interact with us daily. Thus, the design of embodied artificial agents that can easily cooperate with humans is crucial for their deployment in social scenarios. Endowing artificial agents with human-like behavior may boost individuals' engagement during the interaction. We tested this hypothesis in two screen-based experiments. In the first one, we compared attentional engagement displayed by participants while they observed the same set of behaviors displayed by an avatar of a humanoid robot and a human. In the second experiment, we assessed the individuals' tendency to attribute anthropomorphic traits towards the same agents displaying the same behaviors. The results of both experiments suggest that individuals need less effort to process and interpret an artificial agent's behavior when it closely resembles one of a human being. Our results support the idea that including subtle hints of human-likeness in artificial agents' behaviors would ease the communication between them and the human counterpart during interactive scenarios.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Davide Ghiglino
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
- DIBRIS, Università Degli Studi di Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Cesco Willemse
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| | - Davide De Tommaso
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| | - Agnieszka Wykowska
- Social Cognition in Human-Robot Interaction, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Eekhof LS, Kuijpers MM, Faber M, Gao X, Mak M, van den Hoven E, Willems RM. Lost in a Story, Detached from the Words. DISCOURSE PROCESSES 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/0163853x.2020.1857619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lynn S. Eekhof
- Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Myrthe Faber
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Communication and Cognition, Tilburg Center for Cognition and Communication, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands
| | - Xin Gao
- Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Marloes Mak
- Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Roel M. Willems
- Centre for Language Studies, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Vasilev MR, Yates M, Prueitt E, Slattery TJ. Parafoveal degradation during reading reduces preview costs only when it is not perceptually distinct. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2020; 74:254-276. [PMID: 32988313 PMCID: PMC8044602 DOI: 10.1177/1747021820959661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
There is a growing understanding that the parafoveal preview effect during reading may represent a combination of preview benefits and preview costs due to interference from parafoveal masks. It has been suggested that visually degrading the parafoveal masks may reduce their costs, but adult readers were later shown to be highly sensitive to degraded display changes. Four experiments examined how preview benefits and preview costs are influenced by the perception of distinct parafoveal degradation at the target word location. Participants read sentences with four preview types (identity, orthographic, phonological, and letter-mask preview) and two levels of visual degradation (0% vs. 20%). The distinctiveness of the target word degradation was either eliminated by degrading all words in the sentence (Experiments 1a–2a) or remained present, as in previous research (Experiments 1b–2b). Degrading the letter masks resulted in a reduction in preview costs, but only when all words in the sentence were degraded. When degradation at the target word location was perceptually distinct, it induced costs of its own, even for orthographically and phonologically related previews. These results confirm previous reports that traditional parafoveal masks introduce preview costs that overestimate the size of the true benefit. However, they also show that parafoveal degradation has the unintended consequence of introducing additional costs when participants are aware of distinct degradation on the target word. Parafoveal degradation appears to be easily perceived and may temporarily orient attention away from the reading task, thus delaying word processing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mark Yates
- Department of Psychology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USA
| | - Ethan Prueitt
- Department of Psychology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Fan X, Reilly R. Reading development at the text level: an investigation of surprisal and embeddingbased text similarity effects on eyemovements in Chinese early readers. J Eye Mov Res 2020; 13. [PMID: 33828812 PMCID: PMC8012104 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.6.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper describes the use of semantic similarity measures based on distributed representations
of words, sentences, and paragraphs (so-called “embeddings”) to assess the
impact of supra-lexical factors on eye-movement data from early readers of Chinese. In
addition, we used a corpus-based measure of surprisal to assess the impact of local word
predictability. Eye movement data from 56 Chinese students were collected (a) in the
students’ 4th grade and (b) one year later while they were in 5th grade. Results indicated
that surprisal and some text similarity measures have a significant impact on the momentto-
moment processing of words in reading. The paper presents an easy-to-use set of tools
for linking the low-level aspects of fixation durations to a hierarchy of sentence-level and
paragraph-level features that can be computed automatically. The study is the first attempt,
as far as we are aware, to track the developmental trajectory of these influences in developing
readers across a range of reading abilities. The similarity-based measures described
here can be used (a) to provide a measure of reader sensitivity to sentence and paragraph
cohesion and (b) to assess specific texts for their suitability for readers of different reading
ability levels.
Collapse
|
17
|
Abstract
This article addresses the question of whether the human parsing mechanism (HPM) derives sentence meaning always from representations that are computed algorithmically or whether the HPM sometimes resorts to non-algorithmic strategies that may result in misinterpretations. Misinterpretation effects for noncanonical sentences, such as passives, constitute important evidence in favour of models allowing for nonveridical representations. However, it is unclear whether these effects reflect errors in the mapping of form to meaning, or difficulties specific to the procedure used to test comprehension. We report two experiments combining two different comprehension tasks to address these alternative possibilities. In Experiment 1, participants first judged the plausibility of canonical and noncanonical sentences and then named the agent or patient of the sentence. In Experiment 2, the order of the two tasks was reversed. Both tasks require the correct identification of agent or patient/theme, but differ regarding the complexity of operations required to complete the task successfully. In both experiments, participants made a substantial number of errors with agent/patient naming, even when they had correctly assessed sentence plausibility. We conclude that misinterpretation effects do not indicate parsing errors and therefore cannot serve as evidence for non-algorithmic processing. Our results support models of the HPM that assume algorithmic processing only.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Meng
- Merseburg University of Applied Sciences, Merseburg, Germany
| | - Markus Bader
- Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Weiss AF. The Information Gathering Framework - a Cognitive Model of Regressive Eye Movements during Reading. J Eye Mov Res 2020; 13:10.16910/jemr.13.4.4. [PMID: 33828803 PMCID: PMC7888242 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.13.4.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In this article we present a new eye movement control framework that describes the interaction between fixation durations and regressive saccades during reading: The Information Gathering Framework (IGF). Based on the FC model proposed by Bicknell and Levy [15], the basic idea of the IGF is that a confidence level for each word is computed while being monitored by three independent thresholds. These thresholds shape eye movement behavior by increasing fixation duration, triggering a regression, or guiding regression target selection. In this way, the IGF does not only account for regressive eye movements but also provides a framework able to model eye movement control during reading across different scenarios. Importantly, within the IGF it is assumed that two different types of regressive eye movements exist which differ with regard to their releases (integrations difficulties vs. missing evidence) but also with regard to their time course. We tested the predictions of the IGF by re-analyzing an experiment of Weiss et al. [57] and found, inter alia, clear evidence for shorter fixation durations before regressive saccades relative to progressive saccades, with the exception of the last region. This clearly supports the assumptions of the IGF. In addition, we found evidence that there exists a window of about 15-20 characters to the left of the current fixation that plays an important role in target selection, probably indicating the perceptual span during a regressive saccade.
Collapse
|
19
|
Usée F, Jacobs AM, Lüdtke J. From Abstract Symbols to Emotional (In-)Sights: An Eye Tracking Study on the Effects of Emotional Vignettes and Pictures. Front Psychol 2020; 11:905. [PMID: 32528357 PMCID: PMC7264705 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Reading is known to be a highly complex, emotion-inducing process, usually involving connected and cohesive sequences of sentences and paragraphs. However, most empirical results, especially from studies using eye tracking, are either restricted to simple linguistic materials (e.g., isolated words, single sentences) or disregard valence-driven effects. The present study addressed the need for ecologically valid stimuli by examining the emotion potential of and reading behavior in emotional vignettes, often used in applied psychological contexts and discourse comprehension. To allow for a cross-domain comparison in the area of emotion induction, negatively and positively valenced vignettes were constructed based on pre-selected emotional pictures from the Nencki Affective Picture System (NAPS; Marchewka et al., 2014). We collected ratings of perceived valence and arousal for both material groups and recorded eye movements of 42 participants during reading and picture viewing. Linear mixed-effects models were performed to analyze effects of valence (i.e., valence category, valence rating) and stimulus domain (i.e., textual, pictorial) on ratings of perceived valence and arousal, eye movements in reading, and eye movements in picture viewing. Results supported the success of our experimental manipulation: emotionally positive stimuli (i.e., vignettes, pictures) were perceived more positively and less arousing than emotionally negative ones. The cross-domain comparison indicated that vignettes are able to induce stronger valence effects than their pictorial counterparts, no differences between vignettes and pictures regarding effects on perceived arousal were found. Analyses of eye movements in reading replicated results from experiments using isolated words and sentences: perceived positive text valence attracted shorter reading times than perceived negative valence at both the supralexical and lexical level. In line with previous findings, no emotion effects on eye movements in picture viewing were found. This is the first eye tracking study reporting superior valence effects for vignettes compared to pictures and valence-specific effects on eye movements in reading at the supralexical level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Usée
- Department of Experimental and Neurocognitive Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Arthur M Jacobs
- Department of Experimental and Neurocognitive Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Center for Cognitive Neuroscience Berlin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jana Lüdtke
- Department of Experimental and Neurocognitive Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
How well do word recognition measures correlate? Effects of language context and repeated presentations. Behav Res Methods 2020; 51:2800-2816. [PMID: 30421181 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-018-1158-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In the present study we assessed the extent to which different word recognition time measures converge, using large databases of lexical decision times and eyetracking measures. We observed a low proportion of shared variance between these measures, which limits the validity of lexical decision times to real-life reading. We further investigated and compared the role of word frequency and length, two important predictors of word-processing latencies in these paradigms, and found that they influenced the measures to different extents. A second analysis of two different eyetracking corpora compared the eyetracking reading times for short paragraphs with those from reading of an entire book. Our results revealed that the correlations between eyetracking reading times of identical words in two different corpora are also low, suggesting that the higher-order language context in which words are presented plays a crucial role. Finally, our findings indicate that lexical decision times better resemble the average processing time of multiple presentations of the same word, across different language contexts.
Collapse
|
21
|
Jacoby N, Fedorenko E. Discourse-level comprehension engages medial frontal Theory of Mind brain regions even for expository texts. LANGUAGE, COGNITION AND NEUROSCIENCE 2020; 35:780-796. [PMID: 32984430 PMCID: PMC7518647 DOI: 10.1080/23273798.2018.1525494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
In addition to understanding individual word meanings and processing the syntactic and semantic dependencies among those words within a sentence, language comprehension often requires constructing a higher-order discourse structure based on the relationships among clauses and sentences in the extended context. Prior fMRI studies of discourse-level comprehension have reported greater activation for texts than unconnected sentences in what-appear-to-be regions of the Theory of Mind (ToM) network. However, those studies have generally used narratives rich in mental state content, thus confounding coherence and content. We report an fMRI experiment where ToM regions were defined functionally in each participant, and their responses were examined to texts vs. sentence lists. Critically, we used expository texts to minimize mental state content. Medial frontal but not posterior ToM regions exhibited small but reliable increases in their responses to texts relative to unconnected sentences, suggesting a role for these regions in discourse comprehension independent of content.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nir Jacoby
- Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Evelina Fedorenko
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Vorstius C, Radach R, Mayer MB, Lonigan CJ. Monitoring Local Comprehension Monitoring in Sentence Reading. SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGY REVIEW 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/02796015.2013.12087484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
23
|
Hoversten LJ, Traxler MJ. Zooming in on zooming out: Partial selectivity and dynamic tuning of bilingual language control during reading. Cognition 2019; 195:104118. [PMID: 31790961 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Revised: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Prominent models of bilingual visual word recognition posit a bottom-up nonselective view of lexical processing with parallel access to lexical candidates of both languages. However, these accounts do not accommodate recent findings of top-down effects on the relative global activation level of each language during bilingual reading. We conducted two eye-tracking experiments to systematically assess the degree of accessibility of each language in different global language contexts. When critical words were presented overtly in Experiment 1, code switches disrupted reading early during lexical processing, but not as much as pseudowords did. Participants zoomed out of the target language with increasing exposure to language switches. In Experiment 2, a monolingual language context was created by presenting critical words covertly as parafoveal previews. Here, code-switched words were treated like pseudowords, and participants remained zoomed in to the target language throughout the experiment. Switch direction analyses confirmed and extended these interpretations to provide further support for the role of global language control on lexical access, above and beyond effects due to proficiency differences across languages. Together, these data provide strong evidence for dynamic top-down adjustment of the degree of language selectivity during bilingual reading.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Matthew J Traxler
- University of California, Davis, Department of Psychology, Center for Mind and Brain, United States
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Experimental test of Bayesian saccade targeting under reversed reading direction. Atten Percept Psychophys 2019; 82:1230-1240. [PMID: 31347017 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-019-01814-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
During reading, rapid eye movements (saccades) shift the reader's line of sight from one word to another for high-acuity visual information processing. While experimental data and theoretical models show that readers aim at word centers, the eye-movement (oculomotor) accuracy is low compared to other tasks. As a consequence, distributions of saccadic landing positions indicate large (i) random errors and (ii) systematic over- and undershoot of word centers, which additionally depend on saccade lengths (McConkie et al. Visual Research, 28(10), 1107-1118, 1988). Here we show that both error components can be simultaneously reduced by reading texts from right to left in German language (N = 32). We used our experimental data to test a Bayesian model of saccade planning. First, experimental data are consistent with the model. Second, the model makes specific predictions of the effects of the precision of prior and (sensory) likelihood. Our results suggest that it is a more precise sensory likelihood that can explain the reduction of both random and systematic error components.
Collapse
|
25
|
Kim YSG, Petscher Y, Vorstius C. Unpacking eye movements during oral and silent reading and their relations to reading proficiency in beginning readers. CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
26
|
Xue S, Lüdtke J, Sylvester T, Jacobs AM. Reading Shakespeare Sonnets: Combining Quantitative Narrative Analysis and Predictive Modeling -an Eye Tracking Study. J Eye Mov Res 2019; 12:10.16910/jemr.12.5.2. [PMID: 33828746 PMCID: PMC7968390 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.12.5.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
As a part of a larger interdisciplinary project on Shakespeare sonnets' reception (1, 2), the present study analyzed the eye movement behavior of participants reading three of the 154 sonnets as a function of seven lexical features extracted via Quantitative Narrative Analysis (QNA). Using a machine learning-based predictive modeling approach five 'surface' features (word length, orthographic neighborhood density, word frequency, orthographic dissimilarity and sonority score) were detected as important predictors of total reading time and fixation probability in poetry reading. The fact that one phonological feature, i.e., sonority score, also played a role is in line with current theorizing on poetry reading. Our approach opens new ways for future eye movement research on reading poetic texts and other complex literary materials(3).
Collapse
|
27
|
Abstract
There has been debate about whether blue hyperlinks on the Web cause disruption to reading. A series of eye tracking experiments were conducted to explore if coloured words in black text had any impact on reading behaviour outside and inside a Web environment. Experiment 1 and 2 explored the saliency of coloured words embedded in single sentences and the impact on reading behaviour. In Experiment 3, the effects of coloured words/hyperlinks in passages of text in a Web-like environment was explored. Experiment 1 and 2 showed that multiple coloured words in text had no negative impact on reading behaviour. However, if the sentence featured only a single coloured word, a reduction in skipping rates was observed. This suggests that the visual saliency associated with a single coloured word may signal to the reader that the word is important, whereas this signalling is reduced when multiple words are coloured. In Experiment 3, when reading passages of text containing hyperlinks in a Web environment, participants showed a tendency to re-read sentences that contained hyperlinked, uncommon words compared to hyperlinked, common words. Hyperlinks highlight important information and suggest additional content, which for more difficult concepts, invites rereading of the preceding text.
Collapse
|
28
|
Kuperman V, Matsuki K, Van Dyke JA. Contributions of reader- and text-level characteristics to eye-movement patterns during passage reading. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018; 44:1687-1713. [PMID: 30024266 PMCID: PMC6234076 DOI: 10.1037/xlm0000547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The present research presents a novel method for investigating how characteristics of texts (words, sentences, and passages) and individuals (verbal and general cognitive skills) jointly influence eye-movement patterns over the time-course of reading, as well as comprehension accuracy. Fifty-one proficient readers read passages of varying complexity from the Gray Oral Reading Test, while their eye-movements were recorded. Participants also completed a large battery of tests assessing various components of reading comprehension ability (vocabulary size, decoding, phonological awareness, and experience with print), as well as general cognitive and executive skills. We used the Random Forests nonparametric regression technique to simultaneously estimate relative importance of all predictors. This method enabled us to trace the temporal engagement of individual predictors and entire predictor groups on eye-movements during reading, while avoiding the problems of model overfitting and collinearity, typical of parametric regression methods. Our findings both confirmed well-established results of prior research and pointed to a space of hypotheses that is as yet unexplored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Victor Kuperman
- Department of Linguistics and Languages, McMaster University
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Zhou W, Xia Z, Georgiou GK, Shu H. The Distinct Roles of Dorsal and Ventral Visual Systems in Naming of Chinese Characters. Neuroscience 2018; 390:256-264. [PMID: 30176323 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2018] [Revised: 08/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We aimed to investigate the role of dorsal and ventral visual systems in rapid naming of simple Chinese characters. Twenty college students (10 female; Mage = 22.5 years) were required to covertly read a character- and a cross-matrix during an fMRI experiment. A basic prosaccade and a prosaccade-naming task were also performed to confirm the functional significance of the findings. The results of whole brain analysis showed that both dorsal and ventral visual systems were activated in the character-matrix reading. The cross-matrix scanning elicited weaker activation in the left middle frontal gyrus, superior temporal gyrus, and ventral occipitotemporal cortex. Next, whereas both top-down and bottom-up effective connectivities (ECs) were found between these two systems in the character-matrix reading, only top-down ECs were observed in the cross-matrix scanning. Moreover, in the character-matrix reading, we found a negative correlation between the reaction time of naming in the prosaccade-naming task and the EC strength from visual word form area to superior temporal gyrus and a positive correlation between the reaction time in the basic prosaccade task and the EC strength from middle frontal gyrus to intraparietal sulcus. The cross-matrix scanning did not show any brain-behavior relationship. These results suggest that while the dorsal visual system is mainly engaged in eye-movement control, the ventral system is associated more with orthographic processing and orthography-phonology mapping.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhou
- Beijing Key Lab of Learning and Cognition, School of Psychology, Capital Normal University, China
| | - Zhichao Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, China
| | | | - Hua Shu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University, China.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Lange EB, Pieczykolan A, Trukenbrod HA, Huestegge L. The rhythm of cognition - Effects of an auditory beat on oculomotor control in reading and sequential scanning. J Eye Mov Res 2018; 11:10.16910/jemr.11.2.9. [PMID: 33828692 PMCID: PMC7886406 DOI: 10.16910/jemr.11.2.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Eye-movement behavior is inherently rhythmic. Even without cognitive input, the eyes never rest, as saccades are generated 3 to 4 times per second. Based on an embodied view of cognition, we asked whether mental processing in visual cognitive tasks is also rhythmic in nature by studying the effects of an external auditory beat (rhythmic background music) on saccade generation in exemplary cognitive tasks (reading and sequential scanning). While in applied settings background music has been demonstrated to impair reading comprehension, the effect of musical tempo on eye-movement control during reading or scanning has not been investigated so far. We implemented a tempo manipulation in four steps as well as a silent baseline condition, while participants completed a text reading or a sequential scanning task that differed from each other in terms of underlying cognitive processing requirements. The results revealed that increased tempo of the musical beat sped up fixations in text reading, while the presence (vs. absence) of the auditory stimulus generally reduced overall reading time. In contrast, sequential scanning was unaffected by the auditory pacemaker. These results were supported by additionally applying Bayesian inference statistics. Our study provides evidence against a cognitive load account (i.e., that spare resources during low-demand sequential scanning allow for enhanced processing of the external beat). Instead, the data suggest an interpretation in favor of a modulation of the oculomotor saccade timer by irrelevant background music in cases involving highly automatized oculomotor control routines (here: in text reading).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elke B Lange
- Max-Planck-Institute for Empirical Aesthetics, Frankfurt, Germany
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Whitford V, Joanisse MF. Do eye movements reveal differences between monolingual and bilingual children's first-language and second-language reading? A focus on word frequency effects. J Exp Child Psychol 2018; 173:318-337. [PMID: 29800793 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2018.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Revised: 11/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2018] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
An extensive body of research has examined reading acquisition and performance in monolingual children. Surprisingly, however, much less is known about reading in bilingual children, who outnumber monolingual children globally. Here, we address this important imbalance in the literature by employing eye movement recordings to examine both global (i.e., text-level) and local (i.e., word-level) aspects of monolingual and bilingual children's reading performance across their first-language (L1) and second-language (L2). We also had a specific focus on lexical accessibility, indexed by word frequency effects. We had three main findings. First, bilingual children displayed reduced global and local L1 reading performance relative to monolingual children, including larger L1 word frequency effects. Second, bilingual children displayed reduced global and local L2 versus L1 reading performance, including larger L2 word frequency effects. Third, both groups of children displayed reduced global and local reading performance relative to adult comparison groups (across their known languages), including larger word frequency effects. Notably, our first finding was not captured by traditional offline measures of reading, such as standardized tests, suggesting that these measures may lack the sensitivity to detect such nuanced between-group differences in reading performance. Taken together, our findings demonstrate that bilingual children's simultaneous exposure to two reading systems leads to eye movement reading behavior that differs from that of monolingual children and has important consequences for how lexical information is accessed and integrated in both languages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Whitford
- Department of Psychology, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas 79902, USA.
| | - Marc F Joanisse
- Department of Psychology, Brain and Mind Institute, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 3K7, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Frey A, Lemaire B, Vercueil L, Guérin-Dugué A. An Eye Fixation-Related Potential Study in Two Reading Tasks: Reading to Memorize and Reading to Make a Decision. Brain Topogr 2018; 31:640-660. [DOI: 10.1007/s10548-018-0629-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
|
33
|
Yen MH, Wu YT. The role of university students' informal reasoning ability and disposition in their engagement and outcomes of online reading regarding a controversial issue: An eye tracking study. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.04.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
34
|
Weiss AF, Kretzschmar F, Schlesewsky M, Bornkessel-Schlesewsky I, Staub A. Comprehension demands modulate re-reading, but not first pass reading behavior. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2017; 71:1-37. [PMID: 28300468 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2017.1307862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Several studies have examined effects of explicit task demands on eye movements in reading. However, there is relatively little prior research investigating the influence of implicit processing demands. In the present study, processing demands were manipulated by means of a between-subject manipulation of comprehension question difficulty. Consistent with previous results from Wotschack and Kliegl (2013), the question difficulty manipulation influenced the probability of regressing from late in sentences and re-reading earlier regions; readers who expected difficult comprehension questions were more likely to re-read. However, this manipulation had no reliable influence on eye movements during first pass reading of earlier sentence regions. Moreover, for the subset of sentences that contained a plausibility manipulation, the disruption induced by implausibility was not modulated by the question manipulation. We interpret these results as suggesting that comprehension demands influence reading behavior primarily by modulating a criterion for comprehension that readers apply after completing first-pass processing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Fiona Weiss
- a Department of German Linguistics , Philipps University of Marburg , Pilgrimstein 16, 35032 Marburg, Germany
| | - Franziska Kretzschmar
- b Department of German Language and Literature I , University of Cologne , Albertus Magnus Platz, 50923 Cologne, Germany ,
| | - Matthias Schlesewsky
- c School of Psychology, Social Work & Social Policy , University of South Australia , Magill Campus H2-36, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia ,
| | - Ina Bornkessel-Schlesewsky
- d School of Psychology, Social Work & Social Policy , University of South Australia , Magill Campus H2-36, GPO Box 2471, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia ,
| | - Adrian Staub
- e Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences , University of Massachusetts , 430 Tobin Hall, 152 Hicks Way, Amherst , MA , 01003 , United States ,
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Koornneef A, Mulders I. Can We 'Read' the Eye-Movement Patterns of Readers? Unraveling the Relationship Between Reading Profiles and Processing Strategies. JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLINGUISTIC RESEARCH 2017; 46:39-56. [PMID: 26996449 PMCID: PMC5290069 DOI: 10.1007/s10936-016-9418-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In an eye-tracking experiment we examined the risky reading hypothesis, in which long saccades and many regressions are considered to be indicative of a proactive reading style (Rayner et al. in Psychol Aging 21(3):448, 2006; Psychol Aging 24(3):755, 2009). We did so by presenting short texts-that confirmed or disconfirmed verb-based implicit causality expectations-to two types of readers: proactive readers (long saccades, many regressions) and conservative readers (short saccades, few regressions). Whereas proactive readers used implicit causality information to predict upcoming referents, and slowed down immediately when they encountered a pronoun that was inconsistent with these verb-based expectations, the conservative readers slowed down much later in the sentence. These findings were consistent with the predictions of the risky reading hypothesis and as such presented novel evidence for the general idea that the eye-movement profile of readers reveals valuable information about their processing strategy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arnout Koornneef
- Institute of Education and Child Studies, Leiden University, Pieter de la Court gebouw, Wassenaarseweg 52, 2333 AK, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Iris Mulders
- Utrecht Institute of Linguistics OTS, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Rayner K, Schotter ER, Masson MEJ, Potter MC, Treiman R. So Much to Read, So Little Time: How Do We Read, and Can Speed Reading Help? Psychol Sci Public Interest 2017; 17:4-34. [PMID: 26769745 DOI: 10.1177/1529100615623267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The prospect of speed reading--reading at an increased speed without any loss of comprehension--has undeniable appeal. Speed reading has been an intriguing concept for decades, at least since Evelyn Wood introduced her Reading Dynamics training program in 1959. It has recently increased in popularity, with speed-reading apps and technologies being introduced for smartphones and digital devices. The current article reviews what the scientific community knows about the reading process--a great deal--and discusses the implications of the research findings for potential students of speed-reading training programs or purchasers of speed-reading apps. The research shows that there is a trade-off between speed and accuracy. It is unlikely that readers will be able to double or triple their reading speeds (e.g., from around 250 to 500-750 words per minute) while still being able to understand the text as well as if they read at normal speed. If a thorough understanding of the text is not the reader's goal, then speed reading or skimming the text will allow the reader to get through it faster with moderate comprehension. The way to maintain high comprehension and get through text faster is to practice reading and to become a more skilled language user (e.g., through increased vocabulary). This is because language skill is at the heart of reading speed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keith Rayner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego
| | | | | | - Mary C Potter
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| | - Rebecca Treiman
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Davies A, Brown G, Vigo M, Harper S, Horseman L, Splendiani B, Hill E, Jay C. Exploring the Relationship Between Eye Movements and Electrocardiogram Interpretation Accuracy. Sci Rep 2016; 6:38227. [PMID: 27917921 PMCID: PMC5137031 DOI: 10.1038/srep38227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2016] [Accepted: 11/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Interpretation of electrocardiograms (ECGs) is a complex task involving visual inspection. This paper aims to improve understanding of how practitioners perceive ECGs, and determine whether visual behaviour can indicate differences in interpretation accuracy. A group of healthcare practitioners (n = 31) who interpret ECGs as part of their clinical role were shown 11 commonly encountered ECGs on a computer screen. The participants' eye movement data were recorded as they viewed the ECGs and attempted interpretation. The Jensen-Shannon distance was computed for the distance between two Markov chains, constructed from the transition matrices (visual shifts from and to ECG leads) of the correct and incorrect interpretation groups for each ECG. A permutation test was then used to compare this distance against 10,000 randomly shuffled groups made up of the same participants. The results demonstrated a statistically significant (α 0.05) result in 5 of the 11 stimuli demonstrating that the gaze shift between the ECG leads is different between the groups making correct and incorrect interpretations and therefore a factor in interpretation accuracy. The results shed further light on the relationship between visual behaviour and ECG interpretation accuracy, providing information that can be used to improve both human and automated interpretation approaches.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alan Davies
- Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Gavin Brown
- Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Markel Vigo
- Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Harper
- Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Laura Horseman
- Department of Medicine, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, United Kingdom
| | - Bruno Splendiani
- Department of Library and Information Science, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elspeth Hill
- Department of Surgery, Washington University, Saint Louis, United States
| | - Caroline Jay
- Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
White SJ, Drieghe D, Liversedge SP, Staub A. The word frequency effect during sentence reading: A linear or nonlinear effect of log frequency? Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2016; 71:1-11. [PMID: 27760490 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2016.1240813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The effect of word frequency on eye movement behaviour during reading has been reported in many experimental studies. However, the vast majority of these studies compared only two levels of word frequency (high and low). Here we assess whether the effect of log word frequency on eye movement measures is linear, in an experiment in which a critical target word in each sentence was at one of three approximately equally spaced log frequency levels. Separate analyses treated log frequency as a categorical or a continuous predictor. Both analyses showed only a linear effect of log frequency on the likelihood of skipping a word, and on first fixation duration. Ex-Gaussian analyses of first fixation duration showed similar effects on distributional parameters in comparing high- and medium-frequency words, and medium- and low-frequency words. Analyses of gaze duration and the probability of a refixation suggested a nonlinear pattern, with a larger effect at the lower end of the log frequency scale. However, the nonlinear effects were small, and Bayes Factor analyses favoured the simpler linear models for all measures. The possible roles of lexical and post-lexical factors in producing nonlinear effects of log word frequency during sentence reading are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah J White
- a Department of Neuroscience, Psychology and Behaviour , University of Leicester , Leicester , UK
| | - Denis Drieghe
- b School of Psychology , University of Southampton , Southampton , UK
| | | | - Adrian Staub
- c Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences , University of Massachusetts Amherst , Amherst , MA , USA
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Gagl B. Blue hypertext is a good design decision: no perceptual disadvantage in reading and successful highlighting of relevant information. PeerJ 2016; 4:e2467. [PMID: 27688970 PMCID: PMC5036113 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.2467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 08/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Highlighted text in the Internet (i.e., hypertext) is predominantly blue and underlined. The perceptibility of these hypertext characteristics was heavily questioned by applied research and empirical tests resulted in inconclusive results. The ability to recognize blue text in foveal and parafoveal vision was identified as potentially constrained by the low number of foveally centered blue light sensitive retinal cells. The present study investigates if foveal and parafoveal perceptibility of blue hypertext is reduced in comparison to normal black text during reading. Methods A silent-sentence reading study with simultaneous eye movement recordings and the invisible boundary paradigm, which allows the investigation of foveal and parafoveal perceptibility, separately, was realized (comparing fixation times after degraded vs. un-degraded parafoveal previews). Target words in sentences were presented in either black or blue and either underlined or normal. Results No effect of color and underlining, but a preview benefit could be detected for first pass reading measures. Fixation time measures that included re-reading, e.g., total viewing times, showed, in addition to a preview effect, a reduced fixation time for not highlighted (black not underlined) in contrast to highlighted target words (either blue or underlined or both). Discussion The present pattern reflects no detectable perceptual disadvantage of hyperlink stimuli but increased attraction of attention resources, after first pass reading, through highlighting. Blue or underlined text allows readers to easily perceive hypertext and at the same time readers re-visited highlighted words longer. On the basis of the present evidence, blue hypertext can be safely recommended to web designers for future use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Gagl
- Department of Psychology, Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Center for Individual Development and Adaptive Education of Children at Risk (IDeA), Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Zhou W, Wang X, Xia Z, Bi Y, Li P, Shu H. Neural Mechanisms of Dorsal and Ventral Visual Regions during Text Reading. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1399. [PMID: 27695434 PMCID: PMC5023685 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
When reading a narrative text, both the dorsal and ventral visual systems are activated. To illustrate the patterns of interactions between the dorsal and ventral visual systems in text reading, we conducted analyses of functional connectivity (FC) and effective connectivity (EC) in a left-hemispheric network for reading-driven functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and resting-state fMRI (rs-fMRI) data. In reading-driven fMRI (Experiment 1), we found significant FCs among the left middle frontal gyrus (MFG), the left intraparietal sulcus (IPS), and the visual word form area (VWFA), and there were top–down effects from the left MFG to the left IPS, from the left MFG to the VWFA, and from the left IPS to the VWFA. In rs-fMRI (Experiment 2), we identified FCs and ECs for MFG-IPS and IPS-VWFA connections. In addition, the brain–behavior relationship in resting states showed that the dorsal connection was more associated with reading fluency relative to lexical decision. The combination of two experiments revealed that the MFG-IPS and the VWFA-IPS connections were shared connections both in reading-driven fMRI and rs-fMRI, and that the MFG-VWFA was specific connectivity in reading-driven fMRI. These results suggest that top–down effects from the dorsal visual system to ventral visual system play an important role in text reading.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhou
- Beijing Key Lab of Learning and Cognition, Department of Psychology, Capital Normal UniversityBeijing, China; Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Imaging Technology, Capital Normal UniversityBeijing, China; State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal UniversityBeijing, China
| | - Xiaojuan Wang
- School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University Xi'an, China
| | - Zhichao Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University Beijing, China
| | - Yanchao Bi
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University Beijing, China
| | - Ping Li
- Department of Psychology and Center for Brain, Behavior and Cognition, Pennsylvania State University, University Park PA, USA
| | - Hua Shu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning and IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Beijing Normal University Beijing, China
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Al-Zanoon N, Dambacher M, Kuperman V. Evidence for a global oculomotor program in reading. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2016; 81:863-877. [PMID: 27401533 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-016-0786-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Recent corpus studies of eye-movements in reading revealed a substantial increase in saccade amplitudes and fixation durations as the eyes move over the first words of a sentence. This start-up effect suggests a global oculomotor program, which operates on the level of an entire line, in addition to the well-established local programs operating within the visual span. The present study investigates the nature of this global program experimentally and examines whether the start-up effect is predicated on generic visual or specific linguistic characteristics and whether it is mainly reflected in saccade amplitudes, fixation durations or both measures. Eye movements were recorded while 38 participants read (a) normal sentences, (b) sequences of randomly shuffled words and (c) sequences of z-strings. The stimuli were, therefore, similar in their visual features, but varied in the amount of syntactic and lexical information. Further, the stimuli were composed of words or strings that either varied naturally in length (Nonequal condition) or were all restricted to a specific length within a sentence (Equal). The latter condition constrained the variability of saccades and served to dissociate effects of word position in line on saccade amplitudes and fixation durations. A robust start-up effect emerged in saccade amplitudes in all Nonequal stimuli, and-in an attenuated form-in Equal sentences. A start-up effect in single fixation durations was observed in Nonequal and Equal normal sentences, but not in z-strings. These findings support the notion of a global oculomotor program in reading particularly for the spatial characteristics of motor planning, which rely on visual rather than linguistic information.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Noor Al-Zanoon
- Department of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond St, London, ON, N6A 3K7, Canada.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Ferrer RA, Stanley JT, Graff K, Klein WMP, Goodman N, Nelson WL, Salazar S. The Effect of Emotion on Visual Attention to Information and Decision Making in the Context of Informed Consent Process for Clinical Trials. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.1871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
|
43
|
Cop U, Drieghe D, Duyck W. Eye Movement Patterns in Natural Reading: A Comparison of Monolingual and Bilingual Reading of a Novel. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0134008. [PMID: 26287379 PMCID: PMC4545791 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0134008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 07/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION AND METHOD This paper presents a corpus of sentence level eye movement parameters for unbalanced bilingual first language (L1) and second-language (L2) reading and monolingual reading of a complete novel (56 000 words). We present important sentence-level basic eye movement parameters of both bilingual and monolingual natural reading extracted from this large data corpus. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION Bilingual L2 reading patterns show longer sentence reading times (20%), more fixations (21%), shorter saccades (12%) and less word skipping (4.6%), than L1 reading patterns. Regression rates are the same for L1 and L2 reading. These results could indicate, analogous to a previous simulation with the E-Z reader model in the literature, that it is primarily the speeding up of lexical access that drives both L1 and L2 reading development. Bilingual L1 reading does not differ in any major way from monolingual reading. This contrasts with predictions made by the weaker links account, which predicts a bilingual disadvantage in language processing caused by divided exposure between languages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Uschi Cop
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Denis Drieghe
- School of Psychology, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom
| | - Wouter Duyck
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Ghent, Ghent, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Jacobs AM. Neurocognitive poetics: methods and models for investigating the neuronal and cognitive-affective bases of literature reception. Front Hum Neurosci 2015; 9:186. [PMID: 25932010 PMCID: PMC4399337 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2015] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A long tradition of research including classical rhetoric, esthetics and poetics theory, formalism and structuralism, as well as current perspectives in (neuro)cognitive poetics has investigated structural and functional aspects of literature reception. Despite a wealth of literature published in specialized journals like Poetics, however, still little is known about how the brain processes and creates literary and poetic texts. Still, such stimulus material might be suited better than other genres for demonstrating the complexities with which our brain constructs the world in and around us, because it unifies thought and language, music and imagery in a clear, manageable way, most often with play, pleasure, and emotion (Schrott and Jacobs, 2011). In this paper, I discuss methods and models for investigating the neuronal and cognitive-affective bases of literary reading together with pertinent results from studies on poetics, text processing, emotion, or neuroaesthetics, and outline current challenges and future perspectives.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arthur M. Jacobs
- Department of Experimental and Neurocognitive Psychology, Freie Universität BerlinBerlin, Germany
- Center for Cognitive Neuroscience (CCNB), Freie Universität BerlinBerlin, Germany
- Dahlem Institute for Neuroimaging of Emotion (D.I.N.E.), Freie Universität BerlinBerlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Kaakinen JK, Lehtola A, Paattilammi S. The influence of a reading task on children’s eye movements during reading. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2015.1005623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Annika Lehtola
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku , FIN-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Satu Paattilammi
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku , FIN-20014 Turku, Finland
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Michinov N, Jamet E, Métayer N, Le Hénaff B. The eyes of creativity: Impact of social comparison and individual creativity on performance and attention to others’ ideas during electronic brainstorming. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2014.04.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
47
|
Whitford V, Titone D. The Effects of Reading Comprehension and Launch Site on Frequency–Predictability Interactions during Paragraph Reading. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2014; 67:1151-65. [DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2013.848216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
We used eye movement measures of paragraph reading to examine whether word frequency and predictability interact during the earliest stages of lexical processing, with a specific focus on whether these effects are modulated by individual differences in reading comprehension or launch site (i.e., saccade length between the prior and currently fixated word—a proxy for the amount of parafoveal word processing). The joint impact of frequency and predictability on reading will elucidate whether these variables additively or multiplicatively affect the earliest stages of lexical access, which, in turn, has implications for computational models of eye movements during reading. Linear mixed effects models revealed additive effects during both early- and late-stage reading, where predictability effects were comparable for low- and high-frequency words. Moreover, less cautious readers (e.g., readers who engaged in skimming, scanning, mindless reading) demonstrated smaller frequency effects than more cautious readers. Taken together, our findings suggest that during extended reading, frequency and predictability exert additive influences on lexical and postlexical processing, and that individual differences in reading comprehension modulate sensitivity to the effects of word frequency.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Whitford
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Research on Brain, Language & Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Debra Titone
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Research on Brain, Language & Music, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Schotter ER, Bicknell K, Howard I, Levy R, Rayner K. Task effects reveal cognitive flexibility responding to frequency and predictability: evidence from eye movements in reading and proofreading. Cognition 2014; 131:1-27. [PMID: 24434024 PMCID: PMC3943895 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2013.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2013] [Revised: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
It is well-known that word frequency and predictability affect processing time. These effects change magnitude across tasks, but studies testing this use tasks with different response types (e.g., lexical decision, naming, and fixation time during reading; Schilling, Rayner, & Chumbley, 1998), preventing direct comparison. Recently, Kaakinen and Hyönä (2010) overcame this problem, comparing fixation times in reading for comprehension and proofreading, showing that the frequency effect was larger in proofreading than in reading. This result could be explained by readers exhibiting substantial cognitive flexibility, and qualitatively changing how they process words in the proofreading task in a way that magnifies effects of word frequency. Alternatively, readers may not change word processing so dramatically, and instead may perform more careful identification generally, increasing the magnitude of many word processing effects (e.g., both frequency and predictability). We tested these possibilities with two experiments: subjects read for comprehension and then proofread for spelling errors (letter transpositions) that produce nonwords (e.g., trcak for track as in Kaakinen & Hyönä) or that produce real but unintended words (e.g., trial for trail) to compare how the task changes these effects. Replicating Kaakinen and Hyönä, frequency effects increased during proofreading. However, predictability effects only increased when integration with the sentence context was necessary to detect errors (i.e., when spelling errors produced words that were inappropriate in the sentence; trial for trail). The results suggest that readers adopt sophisticated word processing strategies to accommodate task demands.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Klinton Bicknell
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, United States
| | - Ian Howard
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, United States
| | - Roger Levy
- (b)Department of Linguistics, University of California, San Diego, United States
| | - Keith Rayner
- Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, United States
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Vorstius C, Radach R, Lonigan CJ. Eye movements in developing readers: A comparison of silent and oral sentence reading. VISUAL COGNITION 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/13506285.2014.881445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
|
50
|
Kaakinen JK, Hyönä J. Task relevance induces momentary changes in the functional visual field during reading. Psychol Sci 2014; 25:626-32. [PMID: 24390825 DOI: 10.1177/0956797613512332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In the research reported here, we examined whether task demands can induce momentary tunnel vision during reading. More specifically, we examined whether the size of the functional visual field depends on task relevance. Forty participants read an expository text with a specific task in mind while their eye movements were recorded. A display-change paradigm with random-letter strings as preview masks was used to study the size of the functional visual field within sentences that contained task-relevant and task-irrelevant information. The results showed that orthographic parafoveal-on-foveal effects and preview benefits were observed for words within task-irrelevant but not task-relevant sentences. The results indicate that the size of the functional visual field is flexible and depends on the momentary processing demands of a reading task. The higher cognitive processing requirements experienced when reading task-relevant text rather than task-irrelevant text induce momentary tunnel vision, which narrows the functional visual field.
Collapse
|