Antineoplastic effects of targeting CCR5 and its therapeutic potential for colorectal cancer liver metastasis

Altered expression of cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and soluble receptors in patients with colorectal cancer, and correlation with treatment outcome

Insofar as they play an important role in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer (CRC), this study analyzes the serum profile of cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and soluble receptors in patients with CRC and cancer-free controls as possible CRC signatures. Serum levels of 65 analytes were measured in patients with CRC and age- and sex-matched cancer-free controls using the ProcartaPlex Human Immune Monitoring 65-Plex Panel. Of the 65 tested analytes, 8 cytokines (CSF-3, IFN-γ, IL-12p70, IL-18, IL-20, MIF, TNF-α and TSLP), 8 chemokines (fractalkine, MIP-1β, BLC, Eotaxin-1, Eotaxin-2, IP-10, MIP-1a, MIP-3a), 2 growth factors (FGF-2, MMP-1), and 4 soluble receptors (APRIL, CD30, TNFRII, and TWEAK), were differentially expressed in CRC. ROC analysis confirmed the high association of TNF-α, BLC, Eotaxin-1, APRIL, and Tweak with AUC > 0.70, suggesting theranostic application. The expression of IFN-γ, IL-18, MIF, BLC, Eotaxin-1, Eotaxin-2, IP-10, and MMP1 was lower in metastatic compared to non-metastatic CRC; only AUC of MIF and MIP-1β were > 0.7. Moreover, MDC, IL-7, MIF, IL-21, and TNF-α are positively associated with tolerance to CRC chemotherapy (CT) (AUC > 0.7), whereas IL-31, Fractalkine, Eotaxin-1, and Eotaxin-2 were positively associated with resistance to CT. TNF-α, BLC, Eotaxin-1, APRIL, and Tweak may be used as first-line early detection of CRC. The variable levels of MIF and MIP-1β between metastatic and non-metastatic cases assign prognostic nature to these factors in CRC progression. Regarding tolerance to CT, MDC, IL-7, MIF, IL-21, and TNF-α are key when down-regulated or resistant to treatment is observed.

Safety and Efficacy of Vicriviroc (MK-7690) in Combination With Pembrolizumab in Patients With Advanced or Metastatic Microsatellite Stable Colorectal Cancer

BACKGROUND

Pembrolizumab, a monoclonal antibody against PD-1, has shown limited efficacy in patients with microsatellite stable or mismatch repair proficient (MSS/pMMR) metastatic colorectal cancer (CRC). We evaluated vicriviroc (small-molecule C-C motif chemokine ligand 5 antagonist) plus pembrolizumab in patients with advanced or metastatic MSS/pMMR CRC.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This open-label, phase 2 trial (NCT03631407) enrolled adults with histologically confirmed, locally advanced, unresectable or metastatic CRC that was MSS per local assessment. All patients had received previous treatment with standard therapies. Patients were randomized 1:1 to vicriviroc 150 mg orally once daily plus pembrolizumab 200 mg intravenously every 3 weeks or vicriviroc 250 mg orally once daily plus pembrolizumab 200 mg intravenously every 3 weeks for up to 35 cycles (2 years). Primary endpoints were the objective response rate (ORR) as assessed by the investigator per RECIST v1.1, dose-limiting toxicities (DLTs), adverse events (AEs), and discontinuations due to AEs.

RESULTS

Forty patients were enrolled and treated. ORR was 5% (95% CI, 0.1%-24.9%) in both treatment groups. There were no complete responses; 1 patient in each treatment group experienced a partial response. No patient in the vicriviroc 150 mg plus pembrolizumab group experienced a DLT. Two patients in the vicriviroc 250 mg plus pembrolizumab group experienced DLTs (1 grade 4 encephalopathy and 1 grade 4 pneumonitis).

CONCLUSION

The combination of vicriviroc at doses of 150 or 250 mg plus pembrolizumab 200 mg showed limited antitumor activity in patients with advanced or metastatic MSS/pMMR CRC. Toxicity with the combination was manageable.

The Triple Adipose-Derived Stem Cell Exosome Technology as a Potential Tool for Treating Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

BACKGROUND

Extracellular vesicles are pivotal mediators in intercellular communication, facilitating the exchange of biological information among healthy, pathological and tumor cells. Between the diverse subtypes of extracellular vesicles, exosomes have unique properties and clinical and therapeutical applications. Breast cancer ranks as one of the most prevalent malignancies across the globe. Both the tumor core and its surrounding microenvironment engage in a complex, orchestrated interaction that facilitates cancer's growth and spread.

METHODS

The most significant PubMed literature about extracellular vesicles and Adipose-Derived Stem Cell Exosomes and breast cancer was selected in order to report their biological properties and potential applications, in particular in treating triple-negative breast cancer.

RESULTS

Adipose-Derived Stem Cell Exosomes represent a potential tool in targeting triple-negative breast cancer cells at three main levels: the tumor core, the tumor microenvironment and surrounding tissues, including metastases.

CONCLUSIONS

The possibility of impacting triple-negative breast cancer cells with engineered Adipose-Derived Stem Cell Exosomes is real. The opportunity to translate our current in vitro analyses into a future in vivo scenario is even more challenging.

The functional roles of chemokines and chemokine receptors in colorectal cancer progression

Colorectal cancer is a common malignancy with significant rates of morbidity and mortality. A number of factors, including the tumor microenvironment, chemokines, the inflammatory response, have an impact on the development of colorectal cancer. A critical component of the tumor microenvironment is chemokines. Various cell subsets are attracted to the tumor microenvironment through interactions with chemokine receptors. These cells have varying effects on the development of the tumor and the effectiveness of treatment. Additionally, chemokines can participate in inflammatory processes and have effects that are either pro- or anti-tumor. Chemokines can be exploited as targets for medication resistance and treatment in colorectal cancer. In this review, we discuss the expression of chemokines and chemokine receptors, and their relationship with immune cells in the tumor microenvironment. At the same time, we also collect and discuss the significance of chemokines and chemokine receptors in colorectal cancer progression, and their potential as molecular targets for CRC treatment.

CCL5 promotes the proliferation and metastasis of bladder cancer via the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway

Background

Non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) is one of the most common malignant tumors of the urinary system. There is an urgent need for further studies to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of bladder cancer (BC) progression. It has been observed that C-C chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5) and its receptor C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5) are expressed abnormally and activated in solid tumors and hematological malignancies, which is gaining increasing attention. However, the underlying mechanism of CCL5 in BC remains unclear.

Methods

The expression levels of CCL5 were analyzed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and western blot. Proliferation analysis of cells was carried out using Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8). The assessment of the migration was conducted using a wound-healing assay. A Matrigel-coated transwell chamber was used to test cell invasiveness. A subcutaneous transplantation tumor model and tail vein injection pulmonary metastasis tumor model were used to evaluate the proliferation and metastasis of BC cell in vivo.

Results

This study showed that CCL5 promotes proliferative, migratory, and tumor-growing BC cells in vitro and tumor metastasizing BC cells in vivo. Moreover, we found that the tumor-promotive role of CCL5 is dependent on activation of the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway.

Conclusions

CCL5 may play an oncogenic role in BC and may also serve as a potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarker.

CKLF1 interference alleviates IL‑1β‑induced inflammation, apoptosis and degradation of the extracellular matrix in chondrocytes via CCR5

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a type of joint disease with a rising prevalence and incidence among the elderly across the global population. Chemokine-like factor 1 (CKLF1) is a human cytokine, which has been demonstrated to be involved in the progression of multiple human diseases. However, little attention has been paid to the impact of CKLF1 on OA. The present study was designed to identify the role of CKLF1 in OA and to clarify the regulatory mechanism. The expression levels of CKLF1 and its receptor CC chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) were examined by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and western blotting. A Cell Counting Kit-8 assay was used to estimate cell viability. The levels and expression of inflammatory factors were determined by ELISA and RT-qPCR, respectively. Apoptosis was investigated by TUNEL assays and the protein levels of apoptosis-related factors were analyzed by western blotting. RT-qPCR and western blotting were used to examine the expression of extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation-associated proteins and ECM components. Dimethylmethylene blue analysis was used to analyze the production of soluble glycosamine sulfate additive. A co-immunoprecipitation assay was used to confirm the protein interaction between CKLF1 and CCR5. The results revealed that CKLF1 expression was increased in IL-1β-exposed murine chondrogenic ATDC5 cells. Furthermore, CKLF1 silencing enhanced the viability of IL-1β-induced ATDC5 cells, while inflammation, apoptosis and degradation of the ECM were reduced. Additionally, CKLF1 knockdown led to decreased CCR5 expression in IL-1β-challenged ATDC5 cells, and CKLF1 bound with CCR5. The enhanced viability, as well as the suppressed inflammation, apoptosis and degradation of the ECM, following CKLF1 knockdown in the IL-1β-induced ATDC5 cells were all restored after CCR5 was overexpressed. In conclusion, CKLF1 might serve a detrimental role in the development of OA by targeting its receptor CCR5.

Tumor-associated macrophages employ immunoediting mechanisms in colorectal tumor progression: Current research in Macrophage repolarization immunotherapy

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) constitute the most prolific resident of the tumor microenvironment (TME) that regulate its TME into tumor suppressive or progressive milieu by utilizing immunoediting machinery. Here, the tumor cells construct an immunosuppressive microenvironment that educates TAMs to polarize from anti-tumor TAM-M1 to pro-tumor TAM-M2 phenotype consequently contributing to tumor progression. In colorectal cancer (CRC), the TME displays a prominent pro-tumorigenic immune profile with elevated expression of immune-checkpoint molecules notably PD-1, CTLA4, etc., in both MSI and ultra-mutated MSS tumors. This authenticated immune-checkpoint inhibition (ICI) immunotherapy as a pre-requisite for clinical benefit in CRC. However, in response to ICI, specifically, the MSI^hi tumors evolved to produce novel immune escape variants thus undermining ICI. Lately, TAM-directed therapies extending from macrophage depletion to repolarization have enabled TME alteration. While TAM accrual implicates clinical benefit in CRC, sustained inflammatory insult may program TAMs to shift from M1 to M2 phenotype. Their ability to oscillate on both facets of the spectrum represents macrophage repolarization immunotherapy as an effective approach to treating CRC. In this review, we briefly discuss the differentiation heterogeneity of colonic macrophages that partake in macrophage-directed immunoediting mechanisms in CRC progression and its employment in macrophage re-polarization immunotherapy.

Immunologic Signatures across Molecular Subtypes and Potential Biomarkers for Sub-Stratification in Endometrial Cancer

Current molecular classification approaches for endometrial cancer (EC) often employ multiple testing platforms. Some subtypes still lack univocal prognostic significance, highlighting the need for risk sub-stratification. The tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) is associated with tumor progression and prognosis. We sought to investigate the feasibility of classifying EC via DNA sequencing and interrogate immunologic signatures and prognostic markers across and within subtypes, respectively. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedding (FFPE) samples from 50 EC patients underwent targeted DNA and RNA sequencing, and multiplex immunofluorescence assay for TIME. DNA sequencing classified 10%, 20%, 52%, and 18% of patients into the subtype of POLE-mutant, microsatellite instability-high (MSI-H), TP53-wt, and TP53-mutant. POLE-mutant tumors expressed the highest T-effector and IFN-γ signature and the lowest innate anti-PD-1 resistance signature among subtypes. TP53-wt revealed a converse enrichment trend for these immunologic signatures. Survival analyses using the Cancer Genome Atlas Uterine Corpus Endometrial Carcinoma (TCGA-UCEC) dataset identified associations of CCR5 (hazard ratio (HR) = 0.71, p = 0.035), TNFRSF14 (HR = 0.58, p = 0.028), and IL-10 (HR = 2.5, p = 0.012) with overall survival within MSI-H, TP53-mutant, and TP53-wt subtype, respectively. A TIME comparison between the sub-stratified subgroups of our cohort revealed upregulated tumor infiltration of immune cells in the low-risk subgroups. Our study demonstrates that targeted DNA sequencing is an effective one-stop strategy to classify EC. Immunomodulatory genes may serve as prognostic markers within subtypes.

Therapeutic Perspectives of HIV-Associated Chemokine Receptor (CCR5 and CXCR4) Antagonists in Carcinomas

The interaction between malignant cells and the tumor microenvironment is critical for tumor progression, and the chemokine ligand/receptor axes play a crucial role in this process. The CXCR4/CXCL12 and CCR5/CCL5 axes, both related to HIV, have been associated with the early (epithelial-mesenchymal transition and invasion) and late events (migration and metastasis) of cancer progression. In addition, these axes can also modulate the immune response against tumors. Thus, antagonists against the receptors of these axes have been proposed in cancer therapy. Although preclinical studies have shown promising results, clinical trials are needed to include these drugs in the oncological treatment protocols. New alternatives for these antagonists, such as dual CXCR4/CCR5 antagonists or combined therapy in association with immunotherapy, need to be studied in cancer therapy.

Naming the Barriers between Anti-CCR5 Therapy, Breast Cancer and Its Microenvironment

Breast cancer represents the most common malignancy among women in the world. Although immuno-, chemo- and radiation therapy are widely recognized as the therapeutic trifecta, new strategies in the fight against breast cancer are continually explored. The local microenvironment around the tumor plays a great role in cancer progression and invasion, representing a promising therapeutic target. CCL5 is a potent chemokine with a physiological role of immune cell attraction and has gained particular attention in R&D for breast cancer treatment. Its receptor, CCR5, is a well-known co-factor for HIV entry through the cell membrane. Interestingly, biology research is unusually unified in describing CCL5 as a pro-oncogenic factor, especially in breast cancer. In silico, in vitro and in vivo studies blocking the CCL5/CCR5 axis show cancer cells become less invasive and less malignant, and the extracellular matrices produced are less oncogenic. At present, CCR5 blocking is a mainstay of HIV treatment, but despite its promising role in cancer treatment, CCR5 blocking in breast cancer remains unperformed. This review presents the role of the CCL5/CCR5 axis and its effector mechanisms, and names the most prominent hurdles for the clinical adoption of anti-CCR5 drugs in cancer.

Effect of Diacerein on HOTAIR/IL-6/STAT3, Wnt/β-Catenin and TLR-4/NF-κB/TNF-α axes in colon carcinogenesis

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a common malignancy with high mortality and poor prognosis. Diacerein (DIA) is an anti-inflammatory used for treatment of osteoarthritis. We delineated some underlying molecular mechanisms of DIA's anti-carcinogenic effect in CRC using in vivo and in vitro models. Human Caco-2 cells were treated with DIA followed by MTT and Annexin V assays and CRC was experimentally induced using 1,2-dimethylhydrazine. DIA (50 mg/kg/day, orally) was administrated for 8 weeks. The MTT assay confirmed cytotoxic effect of DIA in vitro and Annexin V confirmed its apoptotic effect. DIA resulted in regression of tumour lesions with reduced colonic TLR4, NF-κB and TNF-α protein levels and down-regulated VEGF expression, confirming anti-angiogenic impact. DIA triggered caspase-3 expression and regulated Wnt/β-Catenin pathway, by apparently interrupting the IL-6/STAT3/ lncRNA HOTAIR axis. In conclusion, DIA disrupted IL-6/STAT3/ lncRNA HOTAIR axis which could offer an effective therapeutic strategy for the management of CRC.

Chemokines in progression, chemoresistance, diagnosis, and prognosis of colorectal cancer

Plenty of factors affect the oncogenesis and progression of colorectal cancer in the tumor microenvironment, including various immune cells, stromal cells, cytokines, and other factors. Chemokine is a member of the cytokine superfamily. It is an indispensable component in the tumor microenvironment. Chemokines play an antitumor or pro-tumor role by recruitment or polarization of recruiting immune cells. Meanwhile, chemokines, as signal molecules, participate in the formation of a cross talk among signaling pathways and non-coding RNAs, which may be involved in promoting tumor progression. In addition, they also function in immune escape. Chemokines are related to drug resistance of tumor cells and may even provide reference for the diagnosis, therapy, and prognosis of patients with colorectal cancer.

Chemokines and chemokine receptors in colorectal cancer; multifarious roles and clinical impact

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is considered the second cause of cancer death worldwide. The early diagnosis plays a key role in patient prognosis and subsequently overall survival. Similar to several types of cancer, colorectal cancer is also characterised by drug resistance and heterogeneity that contribute to its complexity -especially at advanced stages. However, despite the extensive research related to the identification of biomarkers associated to early diagnosis, accurate prognosis and the management of CRC patients, little progress has been made thus far. Therefore, the mortality rates, especially at advanced stages, remain high. A large family of chemoattractant cytokines called chemokines are known for their significant role in inflammation and immunity. Chemokines released by the different tumorous cells play a key role in increasing the complexity of the tumour's microenvironment. The current review investigates the role of chemokines and chemokine receptors in colorectal cancer and their potential as clinical molecular signatures that could be effectively used as a personalised therapeutic approach. We discussed how chemokine and chemokine receptors regulate the microenvironment and lead to heterogeneity in CRC. An important aspect of chemokines is their role in drug resistance which has been extensively discussed. This review also provides an overview of the current advances in the search for chemokines and chemokine receptors in CRC.

The Significance of Selected C-C Motif Chemokine Ligands in Colorectal Cancer Patients

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most frequently diagnosed neoplasms. Despite the advances in diagnostic tools and treatments, the number of CRC cases is increasing. Therefore, it is vital to search for new parameters that could be useful in its diagnosis. Thus, we wanted to assess the usefulness of selected CC chemokines (CCL2, CCL4, and CCL15) in CRC. The study included 115 subjects (75 CRC patients and 40 healthy volunteers). The serum concentrations of all parameters were measured using a multiplexing method (Luminex). The CRP levels were determined by immunoturbidimetry, and the classical tumor markers (CEA and CA 19-9) were measured using CMIA (chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay). The concentrations of all parameters were higher in the CRC group when compared to the healthy controls. The diagnostic sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive value, and area under the ROC curve (AUC) of all estimated CC chemokines were higher than those of CA 19-9. Interestingly, the obtained results also suggest CCL2's significance in the determination of local metastases and CCL4's significance in the determination of distant metastases. However, further studies concerning the role of selected CC chemokines in the course of colorectal cancer are necessary to confirm and to fully clarify their diagnostic utility and their clinical application as markers of CRC development.

Comparative analysis of protein-protein interaction networks in metastatic breast cancer

Metastatic lesions leading causes of the majority of deaths in patients with the breast cancer. The present study aimed to provide a comprehensive analysis of the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the brain (MDA-MB-231 BrM2) and lung (MDA-MB-231 LM2) metastatic cell lines obtained from breast cancer patients compared with those who have primary breast cancer. We identified 981 and 662 DEGs for brain and lung metastasis, respectively. Protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis revealed seven shared (PLCB1, FPR1, FPR2, CX3CL1, GABBR2, GPR37, and CXCR4) hub genes between brain and lung metastasis in breast cancer. Moreover, GNG2 and CXCL8, C3, and PTPN6 in the brain and SAA1 and CCR5 in lung metastasis were found as unique hub genes. Besides, five co-regulation of clusters via seven important co-expression genes (COL1A2, LUM, SPARC, THBS2, IL1B, CXCL8, THY1) were identified in the brain PPI network. Clusters screening followed by biological process (BP) function and pathway enrichment analysis for both metastatic cell lines showed that complement receptor signalling, acetylcholine receptor signalling, and gastric acid secretion pathways were common between these metastases, whereas other pathways were site-specific. According to our findings, there are a set of genes and functional pathways that mark and mediate breast cancer metastasis to the brain and lungs, which may enable us understand the molecular basis of breast cancer development in a deeper levele to the brain and lungs, which may help us gain a more complete understanding of the molecular underpinnings of breast cancer development.

Assessment of the RANTES Level Correlation and Selected Inflammatory and Pro-Angiogenic Molecules Evaluation of Their Influence on CRC Clinical Features: A Preliminary Observational Study

Background and Objectives: Assessment of RANTES level and concentrations of inflammatory cytokines: programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1), interferon gamma IFN-γ, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), transforming growht factor β (TGF-β) (and angiogenesis factors: vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) and vascular endothelial growth factor C (VEGF C) in tumor and margin tissues of colorectal cancer (CRC,) and evaluation of RANTES influence on histopathological parameters (microvessel density (MVD), budding, tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs)), in relation to patients’ clinical features. Materials and Methods: The study used 49 samples of tumor and margin tissues derived from CRC patients. To determinate the concentration of RANTES, PD-L1, IFN-γ, TNF-α, TGF-β, VEGF-A, and VEGF-C, we used the commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit. Additionally, RANTES and PD-L1 expression was assessed with the use of IHC staining in both tumor cells and TILS in randomly selected cases. MVD was assessed on CD34-stained specimens. The MVD and budding were assessed using a light microscope. Results: We found significantly higher levels of RANTES, PD-L1, IFN-γ, TNF-α, TGF-β, VEGF-A, and VEGF-C in the tumor in comparison with the margin. The RANTES tumor levels correlated significantly with those of PD-L1, TNF-α, TGF-β, VEGF-A, and VEGF-C. The RANTES margin levels were significantly associated with the margin levels of all proteins investigated—PD-L1, IFN-γ, TNF-α, TGF-β, VEGF-A, and VEGF-C. Additionally, we observed RANTES- and PD-L1-positive immunostaining in TILs. In a group of 24 specimens, 6 different CRC tumors were positive for RANTES and PD-L1 immunostaining. The IFN-gamma concentration in both tumor and margin and TGF-β in tumor correlated with TILs. TILs were negatively associated with the patients’ disease stage and N parameter. Conclusions: RANTES activity might be associated with angiogenesis, lymphogenesis, and immune escape in CRC. RANTES is an important chemokine that is a part of the chemokine–cytokine network involved in the modulation of TME composition in CRC. Further research may verify which processes are responsible for the associations observed in the study.

The Expression Quantitative Trait Loci in Immune Response Genes Impact the Characteristics and Survival of Colorectal Cancer

The impact of germline variants on the regulation of the expression of tumor microenvironment (TME)-based immune response genes remains unclear. Expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) provide insight into the effect of downstream target genes (eGenes) regulated by germline-associated variants (eVariants). Through eQTL analyses, we illustrated the relationships between germline eVariants, TME-based immune response eGenes, and clinical outcomes. In this study, both RNA sequencing data from primary tumor and germline whole-genome sequencing data were collected from patients with stage III colorectal cancer (CRC). Ninety-nine high-risk subjects were subjected to immune response gene expression analyses. Seventy-seven subjects remained for further analysis after quality control, of which twenty-two patients (28.5%) experienced tumor recurrence. We found that 65 eQTL, including 60 germline eVariants and 22 TME-based eGenes, impacted the survival of cancer patients. For the recurrence prediction model, 41 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) achieved the best area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.93. In total, 19 survival-associated eGenes were identified among the DEGs. Most of these genes were related to the regulation of lymphocytes and cytokines. A high expression of HGF, CCR5, IL18, FCER1G, TDO2, IFITM2, and LAPTM5 was significantly associated with a poor prognosis. In addition, the FCER1G eGene was associated with tumor invasion, tumor nodal stage, and tumor site. The eVariants that regulate the TME-based expression of FCER1G, including rs2118867 and rs12124509, were determined to influence survival and chromatin binding preferences. We also demonstrated that FCER1G and co-expressed genes in TME were related to the aggregation of leukocytes via pathway analysis. By analyzing the eQTL from the cancer genome using germline variants and TME-based RNA sequencing, we identified the eQTL in immune response genes that impact colorectal cancer characteristics and survival.

CCL5/CCR5 axis in human diseases and related treatments

To defense harmful stimuli or maintain the immune homeostasis, the body produces and recruits a superfamily of cytokines such as interleukins, interferons, chemokines etc. Among them, chemokines act as crucial regulators in defense systems. CCL5/CCR5 combination is known for facilitating inflammatory responses, as well as inducing the adhesion and migration of different T cell subsets in immune responses. In addition, recent studies have shown that the interaction between CCL5 and CCR5 is involved in various pathological processes including inflammation, chronic diseases, cancers as well as the infection of COVID-19. This review focuses on how CCL5/CCR5 axis participates in the pathological processes of different diseases and their relevant signaling pathways for the regulation of the axis. Moreover, we highlighted the gene therapy and chemotherapy studies for treating CCR5-related diseases, including the ongoing clinical trials. The barriers and perspectives for future application and translational research were also summarized.

Circular RNA hsa_circ_0002483 promotes growth and invasion of lung adenocarcinoma by sponging miR-125a-3p

Background

Increasing evidence indicates that the aberrant expression of circular RNAs (circRNAs) is involved in the pathogenesis and progression of lung adenocarcinoma (LUAC). However, the function and molecular mechanisms of hsa_circ_0002483 (circ_0002483) in LUAC remain unclear.

Methods

The association between circ_0002483 expression and clinicopathological characteristics and prognosis in patients with LUAC was analyzed by fluorescence in situ hybridization. The functional experiments such as CCK-8, colony formation and Transwell assays and a subcutaneous tumor model were conducted to determine the role of circ_0002483 in LUAC cells. The specific binding between circ_0002483 and miR-125a-3p was validated by RNA immunoprecipitation, luciferase gene report and qRT-PCR assays. The effects of circ_0002483 on miR-125a-3p-mediated C-C motif chemokine ligand 4 (CCL4)-CCR5 axis were assessed by Western blot analysis.

Results

We found that circ_0002483 was upregulated in LUAC tissue samples and associated with Tumor Node Metastasis (TNM) stage and poor survival in patients with LUAC. Knockdown of circ_0002483 inhibited proliferation, colony formation and invasion of A549 and PC9 cells in vitro, whereas overexpression of circ_0002483 harbored the opposite effects. Furthermore, circ_0002483 sponged miR-125a-3p and negatively regulated its expression. CCL4 was identified as a direct target of miR-125a-3p. The rescue experiments showed that miR-125a-3p mimics reversed the tumor-promoting effects of circ_0002483 by targeting CCL4-CCR5 axis in A549 and PC9 cells. In addition, the in vivo experiment further validated that knockdown of circ_0002483 repressed tumor growth.

Conclusions

Our findings demonstrated that circ_0002483 could act as a sponge of miR-125a-3p to upregulate CCL4-CCR5 axis, contributing to the tumorigenesis of LUAC, and represent a potential therapeutic target for LUAC.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12935-021-02241-y.

The fibrotic and immune microenvironments as targetable drivers of metastasis

Although substantial progress has been made over the past 40 years in treating patients with cancer, effective therapies for those who are diagnosed with advanced metastatic disease are still few and far between. Cancer cells do not exist in isolation: rather, they exist within a complex microenvironment composed of stromal cells and extracellular matrix. Within this tumour microenvironment exists an interplay between the two main stromal cell subtypes, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) and immune cells, that are important in controlling metastasis. A complex network of paracrine signalling pathways between CAFs, immune cells and tumour cells are involved at multiple stages of the metastatic process, from invasion and intravasation at the primary tumour site to extravasation and colonisation in the metastatic site. Heterogeneity and plasticity within stromal cell populations also contribute to the complexity. Although many of these processes are likely to be common to a number of metastatic sites, we will describe in detail the interplay within the liver, a preferred site of metastasis for many tumours. A greater understanding of these networks provides opportunities for the design of new therapeutic approaches for targeting the metastatic disease.