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Bao P, Wang X, Zhang X, Yu Y, Ma Y, Zhang H, Wang Y, Liu X, Gong P, Zhang N, Lee SO, Li X, Li J. Clonorchis sinensis aggravated liver fibrosis by activating PARP-1 signaling to induce parthanatos via DNA damage. Vet Parasitol 2024; 330:110217. [PMID: 38861911 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2024.110217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
Clonorchis sinensis is an important food-borne zoonotic parasite that is highly associated with liver fibrosis and cholangiocarcinoma. Further understanding of the pathogenesis of C. sinensis, especially liver fibrosis, could help us develop novel strategies for controlling clonorchiasis. Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) can induce cellular parthanatos which is reported to be involved in liver fibrosis. Currently, whether C. sinensis could activate PARP-1 signaling to induce parthanatos or whether parthanatos play a role in C. sinensis-induced liver fibrosis is not clear. In the present study, the expression of PARP-1 and parthanatos indicators were detected in C. sinensis-infected mouse liver and in human intrahepatic biliary epithelial cells (HiBEpiCs) incubated with excretory/secretory products (ESPs) of C. sinensis. To explore the role of PARP-1 in C. sinensis infection, PARP-1 inhibitor NMS-P118 was used to block PARP-1 expression in vivo and vitro. The mortality rate, body weight, worm load, liver and bile duct lesions as well as PARP-1 and parthanatos indicators in C57BL/6 mice infected with C. sinensis, or in HiBEpiCs incubated with C. sinensis ESPs and NMS-P118 were analyzed and compared to the group without NMS-P118. The results showed that C. sinensis infection induced the activation of PARP-1 signaling as well as the translocation of AIF and MIF into the nucleus in mouse liver. ESPs of C. sinensis could induce PARP-1 up-regulation, ATP depletion and DNA damage in HiBEpiCs, indicating that C. sinensis could induce parthanatos. Inhibiting PARP-1 with NMS-P118 significantly reduced liver fibrosis and the number of larvae, increased the survival rate and body weight gain of the mice infected with C. sinensis. In addition, NMS-P118 decreased the expression of PARP-1 and alleviated ATP depletion as well as DNA damage in HiBEpiCs incubated with ESPs of C. sinensis. Our data indicated that C. sinensis and its ESPs could activate PARP-1 signaling to induce cellular parthanatos. NMS-P118 treatment alleviated liver fibrosis and promoted survival of the mice by inhibiting PARP-1, which suggested that PARP-1 could be used as a potential therapeutic target against clonorchiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Penglin Bao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Xiaocen Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Xu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Yanhui Yu
- Second Affiliated Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun, China.
| | - Yeting Ma
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Haoyang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Yuru Wang
- College of Public Health, Jilin Medical University, Jilin 132013, China.
| | - Xiaolei Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Pengtao Gong
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Nan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Soon-Ok Lee
- Department of Medical Research Center for Bioreaction to Reactive Oxygen Species, Biomedical Science Institute, School of Medicine, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea.
| | - Xin Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
| | - Jianhua Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Severe Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, and College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China.
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Zhou Z, Li G, Gao L, Zhou Y, Xiao Y, Bi H, Yang H. Lichen pectin-containing polysaccharide from Xanthoria elegans and its ability to effectively protect LX-2 cells from H 2O 2-induced oxidative damage. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 265:130712. [PMID: 38471602 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.130712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Xanthoria elegans, a drought-tolerant lichen, is the original plant of the traditional Chinese medicine "Shihua" and effectively treats a variety of liver diseases. However, thus far, the hepatoprotective effects of polysaccharides, the most important chemical constituents of X. elegans, have not been determined. The aim of this study was to screen the polysaccharide fraction for hepatoprotective activity by using free radical scavenging assays and a H2O2-induced Lieming Xu-2 cell (LX-2) oxidative damage model and to elucidate the chemical composition of the bioactive polysaccharide fraction. In the present study, three polysaccharide fractions (XEP-50, XEP-70 and XEP-90) were obtained from X. elegans by hot-water extraction, DEAE-cellulose anion exchange chromatography separation and ethanol gradient precipitation. Among the three polysaccharide fractions, XEP-70 exhibited the best antioxidant activity in free radical scavenging capacity and reducing power assays. Structural studies showed that XEP-70 was a pectin-containing heteropolysaccharide fraction that was composed mainly of (1 → 4)-linked and (1 → 4,6)-linked α-D-Glcp, (1 → 4)-linked α-D-GalpA, (1 → 2)-linked, (1 → 6)-linked and (1 → 2,6)-linked α-D-Manp, and (1 → 6)-linked and (1 → 2,6)-linked β-D-Galf. Furthermore, XEP-70 exhibited effectively protect LX-2 cells against H2O2-induced oxidative damage by enhancing cellular antioxidant capacity by activating the Nrf2/Keap1/ARE signaling pathway. Thus, XEP-70 has good potential to protect hepatic stellate cells against oxidative damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Zhou
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810008, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Research, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Xining 810001, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Guoqiang Li
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810008, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Research, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Xining 810001, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Liang Gao
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810008, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Research, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Xining 810001, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yubi Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Research, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Xining 810001, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yuancan Xiao
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810008, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Research, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Xining 810001, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Hongtao Bi
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810008, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Hongxia Yang
- Qinghai Provincial Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Pharmacology and Safety Evaluation, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining 810008, China; CAS Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Research, Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology, Xining 810001, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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Dong H, Zhao L, Sun H, Shang M, Lv G, Yu X, Hu B, Huang Y. Coinfection of Clonorchis sinensis and hepatitis B virus: clinical liver indices and interaction in hepatic cell models. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:460. [PMID: 36510325 PMCID: PMC9746095 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05548-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In China, people infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV) are commonly found in areas with a high prevalence of Clonorchis sinensis, a trematode worm. Published studies have reported that the progression of hepatitis B is affected by coinfection C. sinensis. METHODS Clinical data from a total of 72 patients with C. sinensis and HBV (as sole infection or with coinfections) and 29 healthy individuals were analysed. We also incubated the hepatic stellate cell line LX-2 with total proteins from C. sinensis adult worms (CsTPs) and HBV-positive sera. In addition, the human hepatoblastoma cell line HepG2.2.15 was treated with the antiviral drug entecavir (ETV), CsTPs and the anti-C. sinensis drug praziquantel (PZQ). RESULTS Our clinical data indicated that the levels of alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total bilirubin (TB) and hyaluronic acid (HA) were significantly higher in patients with coinfection than in those infected with HBV only. In cell models, compared with the model in which LX-2 cells were incubated with HBV-positive sera (HBV group), transcripts of alpha-smooth muscle actin and types I and III collagen were significantly elevated in the models of LX-2 cells treated with CsTPs and HBV-positive sera (CsTP+HBV group), while the messenger RNA levels of tumour necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 in the CsTP+HBV group were clearly lower. The HBV surface antigen and hepatitis B e-antigen levels were higher in the HepG2.2.15 cells treated with ETV and CsTPs than in those in the ETV group and in the cells administered a mixture of ETV, CsTPs and PZQ. CONCLUSIONS These results confirmed that C. sinensis and HBV coinfection could aggravate the progression of liver fibrosis. CsTPs might promote chronic inflammation of the liver in individuals with HBV infection, resulting in the development of hepatic fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huimin Dong
- grid.412558.f0000 0004 1762 1794Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XDepartment of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XKey Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control of Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biological Vector Control, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Lu Zhao
- grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XDepartment of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XKey Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control of Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biological Vector Control, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,grid.488525.6Department of Clinical Laboratory, The Sixth Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Hengchang Sun
- grid.412558.f0000 0004 1762 1794Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XDepartment of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XKey Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control of Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biological Vector Control, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Mei Shang
- grid.412558.f0000 0004 1762 1794Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XDepartment of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XKey Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control of Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biological Vector Control, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Gang Lv
- grid.443397.e0000 0004 0368 7493Key Laboratory of Tropical Translational Medicine of Ministry of Education, Hainan Medical University, Haikou, Hainan People’s Republic of China
| | - Xinbing Yu
- grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XDepartment of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XKey Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control of Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biological Vector Control, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Bo Hu
- grid.412558.f0000 0004 1762 1794Department of Laboratory Medicine, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China
| | - Yan Huang
- grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XDepartment of Parasitology, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,grid.12981.330000 0001 2360 039XKey Laboratory for Tropical Diseases Control of Ministry of Education, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China ,Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biological Vector Control, Guangzhou, Guangdong People’s Republic of China
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He XL, Hu YH, Chen JM, Zhang DQ, Yang HL, Zhang LZ, Mu YP, Zhang H, Chen GF, Liu W, Liu P. SNS-032 attenuates liver fibrosis by anti-active hepatic stellate cells via inhibition of cyclin dependent kinase 9. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1016552. [PMID: 36313366 PMCID: PMC9597511 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1016552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver fibrosis is a common pathological process of all chronic liver diseases. Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) play a central role in the development of liver fibrosis. Cyclin-dependent kinase 9 (CDK9) is a cell cycle kinase that regulates mRNA transcription and elongation. A CDK9 inhibitor SNS-032 has been reported to have good effects in anti-tumor. However, the role of SNS-032 in the development of liver fibrosis is unclear. In this study, SNS-032 was found to alleviate hepatic fibrosis by inhibiting the activation and inducing the apoptosis of active HSCs in carbon tetrachloride-induced model mice. In vitro, SNS-032 inhibited the activation and proliferation of active HSCs and induced the apoptosis of active HSCs by downregulating the expression of CDK9 and its downstream signal transductors, such phosphorylated RNA polymerase II and Bcl-2. CDK9 short hairpin RNA was transfected into active HSCs to further elucidate the mechanism of the above effects. Similar results were observed in active HSCs after CDK9 knockdown. In active HSCs with CDK9 knockdown, the expression levels of CDK9, phosphorylated RNA polymerase II, XIAP, Bcl-2, Mcl-1, and ɑ-SMA significantly decreased, whereas those of cleaved-PARP1 and Bax decreased prominently. These results indicated that SNS-032 is a potential drug and CDK9 might be a new prospective target for the treatment of liver fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Li He
- Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Clinical Medicine, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Department of Endocrinology, Yueyang Hospital of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yong-Hong Hu
- Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Clinical Medicine, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jia-Mei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Clinical Medicine, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ding-Qi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Clinical Medicine, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hai-Lin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Clinical Medicine, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lin-Zhang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Clinical Medicine, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of TCM Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yong-Ping Mu
- Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Clinical Medicine, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hua Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Clinical Medicine, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Gao-Feng Chen
- Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Clinical Medicine, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Clinical Medicine, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Wei Liu, ; Ping Liu,
| | - Ping Liu
- Key Laboratory of Liver and Kidney Diseases (Ministry of Education), Institute of Liver Diseases, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Traditional Chinese Clinical Medicine, Shuguang Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of TCM Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- *Correspondence: Wei Liu, ; Ping Liu,
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Abstract
The mechanistic (or mammalian) target of rapamycin (mTOR) is considered as a critical regulatory enzyme involved in essential signaling pathways affecting cell growth, cell proliferation, protein translation, regulation of cellular metabolism, and cytoskeletal structure. Also, mTOR signaling has crucial roles in cell homeostasis via processes such as autophagy. Autophagy prevents many pathogen infections and is involved on immunosurveillance and pathogenesis. Immune responses and autophagy are therefore key host responses and both are linked by complex mTOR regulatory mechanisms. In recent years, the mTOR pathway has been highlighted in different diseases such as diabetes, cancer, and infectious and parasitic diseases including leishmaniasis, toxoplasmosis, and malaria. The current review underlines the implications of mTOR signals and intricate networks on pathogen infections and the modulation of this master regulator by parasites. Parasitic infections are able to induce dynamic metabolic reprogramming leading to mTOR alterations in spite of many other ways impacting this regulatory network. Accordingly, the identification of parasite effects and interactions over such a complex modulation might reveal novel information regarding the biology of the abovementioned parasites and might allow the development of therapeutic strategies against parasitic diseases. In this sense, the effects of inhibiting the mTOR pathways are also considered in this context in the light of their potential for the prevention and treatment of parasitic diseases.
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