Sodium ferric gluconate complex therapy in anemic children on hemodialysis

Parenteral iron therapy in children with iron deficiency anemia

Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) continues to be a global public health problem. Oral iron is the universally accepted first-line therapy, and most children have a prompt and favorable response to oral formulations. In subsets of children who fail to respond due to intolerance, poor adherence, or inadequate intestinal absorption, parenteral iron is indicated. Despite numerous studies in adults with IDA of diverse etiologies, pediatric studies on parenteral iron use are very limited. Although mostly retrospective and small, these studies have documented the efficacy and safety profile of intravenous iron formulations. In this editorial the author comments on the most important published data and underscores the need to seriously consider parenteral iron use in children unresponsive to oral therapy.

Diagnosis and management of anemia in pediatric inflammatory bowel diseases: Clinical practice guidelines on behalf of the SIGENP IBD Working group

Anemia is one of the most frequent extra-intestinal manifestations of inflammatory bowel disease. Insidious onset, variability of symptoms and lack of standardized screening practices may increase the risk of underestimating its burden in children with IBD. Despite its relevance and peculiarity in everyday clinical practice, this topic is only dealt with in a few documents specifically for the pediatric field. The aim of the current guidelines is therefore to provide pediatric gastroenterologists with a practical update to support the clinical and therapeutic management of children with IBD and anemia. A panel of 19 pediatric gastroenterologists and 1 pediatric hematologist with experience in the field of pediatric IBD was agreed by IBD Working group of the Italian Society of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (SIGENP) to produce the present article outlining practical clinical approaches to the pediatric patient with IBD and anemia. The levels of evidence and recommendations have been defined for each part of the statement according to the GRADE system.

Nanotechnology Innovations in Pediatric Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine: A Comprehensive Review

(1) Background: Nanomedicine, incorporating various nanoparticles and nanomaterials, offers significant potential in medical practice. Its clinical adoption, however, faces challenges like safety concerns, regulatory hurdles, and biocompatibility issues. Despite these, recent advancements have led to the approval of many nanotechnology-based products, including those for pediatric use. (2) Methods: Our approach included reviewing clinical, preclinical, and animal studies, as well as literature reviews from the past two decades and ongoing trials. (3) Results: Nanotechnology has introduced innovative solutions in cardiovascular care, particularly in managing myocardial ischemia. Key developments include drug-eluting stents, nitric oxide-releasing coatings, and the use of magnetic nanoparticles in cardiomyocyte transplantation. These advancements are pivotal for early detection and treatment. In cardiovascular imaging, nanotechnology enables noninvasive assessments. In pediatric cardiology, it holds promise in assisting the development of biological conduits, synthetic valves, and bioartificial grafts for congenital heart defects, and offers new treatments for conditions like dilated cardiomyopathy and pulmonary hypertension. (4) Conclusions: Nanomedicine presents groundbreaking solutions for cardiovascular diseases in both adults and children. It has the potential to transform cardiac care, from enhancing myocardial ischemia treatment and imaging techniques to addressing congenital heart issues. Further research and guideline development are crucial for optimizing its clinical application and revolutionizing patient care.

Intravenous iron therapy in pediatrics: who should get it and when is the right time?

Iron-deficiency anemia occurs most commonly in young children due to a low-iron diet and adolescent girls due to menstrual blood loss. However, children with gastrointestinal conditions such as intestinal failure, inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease, and/or other chronic conditions, including chronic kidney disease and heart failure, also commonly have iron deficiency. Many patients with classic iron-deficiency anemia will improve with oral iron therapy. However, in children who have an incomplete response to oral iron, intravenous iron therapy is increasingly being used. Benefits of intravenous iron therapy include a rapid repletion of iron stores in addition to resolution of anemia, less gastrointestinal side effects, and relief for patients and families struggling with long-term iron supplementation. Indications for first-line therapy with intravenous iron in children with chronic conditions have also increased. Four intravenous iron formulations have approved indications in pediatrics, and many are increasingly used off-label in children as well. Here we discuss the indications and appropriate timing of intravenous iron therapy in children with a wide range of underlying etiologies.

Molecular Probes, Chemosensors, and Nanosensors for Optical Detection of Biorelevant Molecules and Ions in Aqueous Media and Biofluids

Synthetic molecular probes, chemosensors, and nanosensors used in combination with innovative assay protocols hold great potential for the development of robust, low-cost, and fast-responding sensors that are applicable in biofluids (urine, blood, and saliva). Particularly, the development of sensors for metabolites, neurotransmitters, drugs, and inorganic ions is highly desirable due to a lack of suitable biosensors. In addition, the monitoring and analysis of metabolic and signaling networks in cells and organisms by optical probes and chemosensors is becoming increasingly important in molecular biology and medicine. Thus, new perspectives for personalized diagnostics, theranostics, and biochemical/medical research will be unlocked when standing limitations of artificial binders and receptors are overcome. In this review, we survey synthetic sensing systems that have promising (future) application potential for the detection of small molecules, cations, and anions in aqueous media and biofluids. Special attention was given to sensing systems that provide a readily measurable optical signal through dynamic covalent chemistry, supramolecular host-guest interactions, or nanoparticles featuring plasmonic effects. This review shall also enable the reader to evaluate the current performance of molecular probes, chemosensors, and nanosensors in terms of sensitivity and selectivity with respect to practical requirement, and thereby inspiring new ideas for the development of further advanced systems.

Anemia in Children With Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Position Paper by the IBD Committee of the North American Society of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition

Anemia is one of the most common extraintestinal manifestations of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). It can be asymptomatic or associated with nonspecific symptoms, such as irritability, headaches, fatigue, dizziness, and anorexia. In IBD patients, the etiology of anemia is often multifactorial. Various causes include iron deficiency, anemia of inflammation and chronic disease, vitamin deficiencies, hemolysis, or myelosuppressive effect of drugs. Anemia and iron deficiency in these patients may be underestimated because of their insidious onset, lack of standardized screening practices, and possibly underappreciation that treatment of anemia is also required when treating IBD. Practitioners may hesitate to use oral preparations because of their intolerance whereas intravenous preparations are underutilized because of fear of adverse events, availability, and cost. Several publications in recent years have documented the safety and comparative efficacy of various intravenous preparations. This article reviews management of anemia in children with IBD, including diagnosis, etiopathogenesis, evaluation of a patient, protocol to screen and monitor patients for early detection and response to therapy, treatment including parenteral iron therapy, and newer approaches in management of anemia of chronic disease. This report has been compiled by a group of pediatric gastroenterologists serving on the North American Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Nutrition (NASPGHAN) IBD committee, in collaboration with a pediatric hematologist, pharmacist, and a registered dietician who specializes in pediatric IBD (IBD Anemia Working Group), after an extensive review of the current literature. The purpose of this review is to raise awareness of under-diagnosis of anemia in children with IBD and make recommendations for screening, testing, and treatment in this population.

Diagnosis and management of iron deficiency in children with or without anemia: consensus recommendations of the SPOG Pediatric Hematology Working Group

Iron deficiency is the most prevalent nutritional deficiency affecting children and adolescents worldwide. A consistent body of epidemiological data demonstrates an increased incidence of iron deficiency at three timepoints: in the neonatal period, in preschool children, and in adolescents, where it particularly affects females.Conclusion: This narrative review focuses on the most suggestive symptoms of iron deficiency in childhood, describes the diagnostic procedures in situations with or without anemia, and provides Swiss expert-based management recommendations for the pediatric context.What is Known:• Iron deficiency (ID) is one of the most common challenges faced by pediatricians.• Significant progress in the diagnosis and therapy of ID has been made over the last decade.What is New:• Our expert panel provides ID management recommendations based on the best available evidence.• They include strategies for ID diagnosis and therapy, both oral and intravenous.

Ferumoxytol for iron deficiency anemia in patients undergoing hemodialysis. The FACT randomized controlled trial

Background: Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) undergoing dialysis often require intravenous iron for iron deficiency anemia (IDA). Materials and methods: The Ferumoxytol for Anemia of CKD Trial (FACT), a randomized, multicenter, open-label, phase 4 study, compared the long-term safety and efficacy of ferumoxytol with iron sucrose for the treatment of IDA in patients with CKD undergoing hemodialysis. Patients with IDA and CKD undergoing hemodialysis were randomized 2:1 to ferumoxytol 1.02 g (2 × 510 mg) or iron sucrose 1.0 g (10 × 100 mg) for a 5-week treatment period (TP). Over 11 months, patients underwent additional 5-week TPs whenever IDA (hemoglobin < 11.5 g/dL and transferrin saturation < 30%) was detected. The primary efficacy endpoint was mean change in hemoglobin from baseline to week 5 for each TP. Adverse events were recorded during the study. Results: Overall, 293 patients received ferumoxytol (n = 196) or iron sucrose (n = 97). Ferumoxytol was noninferior to iron sucrose regarding hemoglobin change from baseline to week 5. The mean change in hemoglobin in the ferumoxytol and iron sucrose groups was 0.5 and 0.4 g/dL, respectively, in TP 1 (least-squares mean difference, 0.13; 95% confidence interval, –0.11 to 0.36) and 0.6 and 0.3 g/dL, respectively, in TP 2 (0.30; 0.06 – 0.55). Treatment-related and serious adverse events were similar in both groups; no new safety signals emerged. Conclusion: Long-term administration of ferumoxytol has noninferior efficacy and a similar safety profile to iron sucrose when used to treat IDA in patients with CKD undergoing hemodialysis.

Anemia in chronic kidney disease

Anemia is common and associated with adverse outcomes in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Many factors contribute to declining hemoglobin as CKD progresses, but impaired production of erythropoietin by failing kidneys is a central cause. Hepcidin-mediated iron restriction also contributes to anemia by downregulating both intestinal iron absorption and release of stored iron for erythropoiesis. The core components of anemia management remain erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESA) and iron supplementation, but despite these therapies, a substantial number of children remain anemic. Although escalating ESA dose to target higher hemoglobin has been associated with adverse outcomes in adults, no trials have investigated this association in children, and maintaining hemoglobin levels in a narrow range with conservative ESA dosing is challenging. Judicious use of iron supplementation can enhance the response to ESAs, but the iron storage markers most commonly used in clinical practice have limitations in distinguishing which patients will benefit most from additional iron. Several novel anemia therapies, including hypoxia-inducible factor stabilizers, prolyl hydroxylase inhibitors, and dialysate-delivered iron supplements, have been developed and may offer options for alternative anemia management. However, the safety and efficacy of these agents in children with CKD has yet to be assessed.

Care of the Pediatric Patient on Chronic Dialysis

Optimal care of the pediatric end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patient on chronic dialysis is complex and requires multidisciplinary care as well as patient/caregiver involvement. The dialysis team, along with the family and patient, should all play a role in choosing the dialysis modality which best meets the patient's needs, taking into account special considerations and management issues that may be particularly pertinent to children who receive peritoneal dialysis or hemodialysis. Meticulous attention to dialysis adequacy in terms of solute and fluid removal, as well as to a variety of clinical manifestations of ESRD, including anemia, growth and nutrition, chronic kidney disease-mineral bone disorder, cardiovascular health, and neurocognitive development, is essential. This review highlights current recommendations and advances in the care of children on dialysis with a particular focus on preventive measures to minimize ESRD-associated morbidity and mortality. Advances in dialysis care and prevention of complications related to ESRD and dialysis have led to better survival for pediatric patients on dialysis.

The Ferumoxytol for Anemia of CKD Trial (FACT)-a randomized controlled trial of repeated doses of ferumoxytol or iron sucrose in patients on hemodialysis: background and rationale

Background

Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is a common manifestation of chronic kidney disease (CKD), affecting most patients on hemodialysis and imposing a substantial clinical burden. Treatment with iron supplementation increases hemoglobin levels and can reduce the severity of anemia in patients with CKD. While correcting anemia in these patients is an important therapeutic goal, there is a lack of long-term trials directly comparing intravenous iron therapies in patients with CKD receiving hemodialysis.

Methods/Design

The Ferumoxytol for Anemia of CKD Trial (FACT) is a 13-month, open-label, randomized, multicenter, international, prospective study with 2 substudies. Entry criteria for the main study include adults with IDA (defined as hemoglobin <11.5 g/dL [<115.0 g/L] and a transferrin saturation <30%), serum ferritin <800 ng/mL (<1798 pmol/L), and receiving hemodialysis for ≥3 months. Patients are randomized to receive ferumoxytol (1.02 g over 2 doses) or iron sucrose (1.0 g over 10 doses) during the initial 5-week treatment period. Those with persistent/recurrent IDA over the 11-month observation period will receive additional 5-week treatment periods, as appropriate. The primary efficacy endpoint of the main study is the mean change in hemoglobin from Baseline to Week 5 for each treatment period. The secondary efficacy endpoints include the mean change in transferrin saturation from Baseline to Week 5 and the proportion of patients with a hemoglobin increase of ≥1.0 g/dL at any time from Baseline to Week 5. Safety will be assessed through an examination of the adverse event profile over the course of the study. An “oxidative stress” substudy in approximately 100 patients will assess the effects of treatment on biomarkers of oxidative stress/inflammation during the initial 5-week treatment period, and a magnetic resonance imaging substudy in approximately 70 patients will assess the potential for iron deposition in target tissues over 24 months.

Discussion

FACT fulfills the need for a long-term comparative trial in patients with IDA and CKD receiving hemodialysis. The efficacy and safety results will provide useful information for guiding therapy in this population. Two hundred ninety-six patients have been enrolled, and completion of the main study is expected soon.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01227616 (registered October 22, 2010); EudraCT number: 2010-022133-28

Comparison of reticulocyte hemoglobin equivalent with traditional markers of iron and erythropoiesis in pediatric dialysis

BACKGROUND

Anemia is a major complication for patients on chronic dialysis. Erythropoietin is effective if iron is available, however unnecessary iron supplementation results in iron overload. Reticulocyte hemoglobin equivalent (Ret-He) may be useful for assessing iron status.

METHODS

A national retrospective cohort study including all children on chronic dialysis in New Zealand between 2007 and 2013, pairing Ret-He with demographic information, anemia indices, and markers of iron status.

RESULTS

In 606 observations, we found a modest relationship between Ret-He and transferrin saturation (TSAT) (r = 0.34, p < 0.001) and a poor correlation between Ret-He and ferritin (r = 0.09, p = 0.04). There was a negative correlation between ferritin and hemoglobin (r = -0.14, p = 0.002), a weak positive correlation between TSAT and hemoglobin (r = 0.12, p = 0.007), and a modest positive correlation between Ret-He and hemoglobin (r = 0.22, p < 0.001). The diagnostic performance of Ret-He to detect absolute iron deficiency (cut-off value 28.9 pg, sensitivity 90 %, specificity 75 %, AUC 0.87) was good.

CONCLUSIONS

Ret-He is a more relevant marker of iron status than ferritin and TSAT. This supports prospectively testing Ret-He to distinguish between iron deficiency and suboptimal erythropoietin dosing as competing causes for anemia. Ferritin is an unhelpful biomarker of iron deficiency in this setting.

Management of anemia with erythropoietic-stimulating agents in children with chronic kidney disease

Anemia management is an important component of the care provided to children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and influences both morbidity and mortality risk. The introduction of recombinant human erythropoietin to the treatment regimen three decades ago revolutionized the therapy and significantly decreased the need for repeated blood transfusions and exposure to associated risks. Recent data on the efficacy and complications associated with erythropoietic-stimulating agent (ESA) usage has, however, prompted a reassessment of treatment-related recommendations. This review will address these recommendations, in addition to describing pediatric outcomes associated with current ESAs and presenting information on alternative ESAs, many of which will likely soon be incorporated into clinical practice.

Intravenous low molecular weight iron dextran in children with iron deficiency anemia unresponsive to oral iron

BACKGROUND

Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) in children is usually treated with oral iron, yet many respond poorly. Intravenous low molecular weight iron dextran (LMWID) offers the opportunity of employing a single outpatient infusion to correct the anemia and reduce the overall burden of treatment, but its use in children has been limited due to concerns of serious adverse effects. In this study we report our initial experience using LMWID in children with iron deficiency in whom oral iron was ineffective.

METHODS

We performed a case series of LMWID treatment of children with IDA of diverse etiologies who were poorly responsive to oral iron therapy with the aim of measuring its efficacy and adverse effects. LMWID was administered as a total dose infusion over 60 minutes in the outpatient setting.

RESULTS

Thirty-one patients age 11 months to 18 years received intravenous LMWID, and 24 were evaluable for hematologic response. Median hemoglobin increments were respectively 3.5, 1.9, and 1.8 g/dl in patients with IDA due to poor nutrition (n = 11), chronic blood loss (n = 13), and miscellaneous causes (n = 7). Two thirds of evaluable patients had a complete hematologic response. Nine of the patients (29%) had mild non-specific adverse effects upon initiation of the LMWID infusion.

CONCLUSIONS

LMWID as a total dose infusion was well tolerated and effective in a heterogeneous group of children and adolescents with IDA who were refractory to oral iron therapy. Transient reactions were common but not serious.

KDOQI US commentary on the 2012 KDIGO Clinical Practice Guideline for Anemia in CKD

The 2012 KDIGO (Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes) Clinical Practice Guideline for Anemia in Chronic Kidney Disease provides clinicians with comprehensive evidence-based recommendations to improve patient care. In this commentary, we review these recommendations and the underlying evidence. Most recommendations are well reasoned. For some, the evidence is unclear and recommendations require some qualification. While the KDIGO guideline stresses the potential risks of intravenous iron therapy, withholding iron might have its own risks. The recommendation to avoid hemoglobin levels falling below 9 g/dL sets a lower bound of "acceptability" that may increase blood transfusion. Given the lack of research supporting the optimal transfusion strategy for end-stage renal disease patients, it is difficult to weigh the risks and benefits of red blood cell transfusion. We find a paucity of evidence that hemoglobin concentration targeted between 11 and 11.5 g/dL is associated with a safety risk. Although the evidence that erythropoiesis-stimulating agent use improves patient quality of life is poor, it is possible that the instruments used to measure quality of life may not be well attuned to the needs of chronic kidney disease or dialysis patients. Our last section focuses specifically on the recommendations to treat anemia in children.

Comparison of the safety and efficacy of 3 iron sucrose iron maintenance regimens in children, adolescents, and young adults with CKD: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Iron deficiency is a common cause of anemia in young persons with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Iron repletion with intravenous (IV) iron formulations has been studied in children; maintenance IV iron regimens have not been reported extensively.

STUDY DESIGN

A multicenter randomized trial of IV iron sucrose.

SETTING & PARTICIPANTS

145 children, adolescents, and young adults with CKD receiving erythropoiesis-stimulating agent (ESA) therapy were stratified by dialysis category (hemodialysis, peritoneal dialysis, or non-dialysis dependent) and weight (<50 and ≥50 kg).

INTERVENTION

Patients were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 dosing arms: 0.5, 1.0, or 2.0 mg/kg (maximum single dose, 100 mg), stratified into hemodialysis versus nonhemodialysis (peritoneal dialysis or non-dialysis-dependent CKD) groups. Patients treated with hemodialysis received study medication once every other week for 6 doses. Patients in the nonhemodialysis group received study medication once every 4 weeks for 3 doses.

OUTCOMES

We assessed adverse event rates between dosing groups. The main clinical end point was a composite of hemoglobin level ≥10.5-14.0 g/dL, inclusive; transferrin saturation ≥20%-50%, inclusive; and stable ESA dosing (±25% of baseline dose).

RESULTS

Between-group difference for composite clinical end point rate attainment was -3.9% (95% CI, -21.4% to 13.7%) for the 1.0-mg/kg group versus 0.5-mg/kg group, +3.9% (95% CI, -15.1% to 23.0%) for the 2-mg/kg group versus 0.5-mg/kg group, and +7.8% (95% CI, -10.9% to 26.5%) for the 2-mg/kg group versus 1-mg/kg group. No differences were noted between regimens in reported adverse effects, which were all minor.

LIMITATIONS

Absence of a control group receiving no IV iron. Short duration of intervention and observation. A small proportion of patients having achieved the primary clinical outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

IV iron sucrose at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg at the intervals prescribed is noninferior to higher doses in maintaining hemoglobin levels >10.5 g/dL in children, adolescents, and young adults receiving ESA therapy.

Understanding renal posttransplantation anemia in the pediatric population

Advances in renal transplantation management have proven to be beneficial in improving graft and patient survival. One of the properties of a well-functioning renal allograft is the secretion of adequate amounts of the hormone erythropoietin to stimulate erythropoiesis. Posttransplantation anemia (PTA) may occur at any point in time following transplantation, and the cause is multifactoral. Much of our understanding of PTA is based on studies of adult transplant recipients. The limited number of studies that have been reported on pediatric renal transplant patients appear to indicate that PTA is prevalent in this patient population. Erythropoietin deficiency or resistance is commonly associated with iron deficiency. An understanding of the risk factors, pathophysiology and management of PTA in the pediatric renal transplant population may provide guidelines for clinicians and researchers in the pursuit of larger prospective randomized control studies aimed at improving our limited knowledge of PTA. Recognition of PTA through regular screening and evaluation of the multiple factors that may contribute to its development are recommended after transplantation.

Continuous EPO receptor activator therapy of anemia in children under peritoneal dialysis

The short half-life of erythropoietin (rHuEPO) leads to repeated fluctuations in hemoglobin levels and the need for frequent administration. Continuous erythropoietin receptor activator (CERA) therapy has been approved for once or twice a month in adult dialysis patients. To evaluate the efficacy and safety of CERA therapy in the management of anemia in pediatric peritoneal dialysis (PD) stable PD children under twice-a-week EPO were converted to a subcutaneous CERA, scheduled every 2 weeks. The follow-up was 6 months. The primary efficacy parameter was hemoglobin > 11 g/dL. The exclusion criteria were ferritin <100 ng/ml and Hb saturation <20%. Sixteen children, aged 9.75 ± 3.6 years, including 11 boys, participated in the study. Mean Hb level at month 0 was 10.8 ± 1.9 g/dL. A decrease in hemoglobin to 10.38 ± 1 g/dL at month 2 was observed. The CERA dose was increased from 0.86 ± 0.33 to 1.67 ± 0.4 μg/kg at month 3. The target Hb level was reached by the 3rd month. The Hb level and CERA dose were 12.2 ± 1.2 and 1.6 ± 0.67 μg/kg respectively at the end of the study. No adverse events were observed during the protocol. CERA is an effective and safe therapy for maintaining hemoglobin levels when administered twice, up to once a month, in PD children. Doses required to reach target Hb were higher than published experiences in adult populations.

Parenteral Iron Therapy in the Pediatric Patient

For more than 50 years, iron dextran has been the mainstay of parenteral iron therapy in the United States. In October 2009, the Food and Drug Administration expanded its existing black box warning that cautioned practitioners to administer a test dose first because of the risk of anaphylactic, often fatal adverse reactions. It further modified the warning, stating that fatal reactions can still occur even in patients who tolerated the test dose. As a result, health care providers have sought safer alternatives to parenteral iron dextran when oral iron repletion is not an option. The purpose of this review is to discuss the currently available formulations, with a focus on the needs of the pediatric patient, in whom there is limited experience in using products other than iron dextran.

Anemia in children with chronic kidney disease

Anemia is a common feature of chronic kidney disease, but the management of anemia in children is complex. Erythropoietin and supplemental iron are used to maintain hemoglobin levels. The National Kidney Foundation-Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (NKF-KDOQI) clinical practice guidelines for the management of anemia specifically in children were recently published. Pediatric nephrologists are encouraged to use current clinical practice guidelines and best evidence in conjunction with their clinical experience to optimally manage patients with anemia.

Ferric gluconate reduces epoetin requirements in hemodialysis patients with elevated ferritin

The Dialysis Patients Response to IV Iron with Elevated Ferritin (DRIVE) study demonstrated the efficacy of intravenous ferric gluconate to improve hemoglobin levels in anemic hemodialysis patients who were receiving adequate epoetin doses and who had ferritin levels between 500 and 1200 ng/ml and transferrin saturation (TSAT) < or = 25%. The DRIVE-II study reported here was a 6-wk observational extension designed to investigate how ferric gluconate impacted epoetin dosage after DRIVE. During DRIVE-II, treating nephrologists and anemia managers adjusted doses of epoetin and intravenous iron as clinically indicated. By the end of observation, patients in the ferric gluconate group required significantly less epoetin than their DRIVE dose (mean change of -7527 +/- 18,021 IU/wk, P = 0.003), whereas the epoetin dose essentially did not change for patients in the control group (mean change of 649 +/- 19,987 IU/wk, P = 0.809). Mean hemoglobin, TSAT, and serum ferritin levels remained higher in the ferric gluconate group than in the control group (P = 0.062, P < 0.001, and P = 0.014, respectively). Over the entire 12-wk study period (DRIVE plus DRIVE-II), the control group experienced significantly more serious adverse events than the ferric gluconate group (incidence rate ratio = 1.73, P = 0.041). In conclusion, ferric gluconate maintains hemoglobin and allows lower epoetin doses in anemic hemodialysis patients with low TSAT and ferritin levels up to 1200 ng/ml.

Single-dosage pharmacokinetics of sodium ferric gluconate complex in iron-deficient pediatric hemodialysis patients

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The clinical use of sodium ferric gluconate complex in iron-deficient pediatric patients receiving hemodialysis was recently approved. This study was designed to describe the pharmacokinetic parameters of the medication.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

Iron-deficient pediatric (< or = 15 yr) hemodialysis patients were randomly assigned to two doses (1.5 and 3.0 mg/kg) of sodium ferric gluconate complex. Blood samples taken during a 1-h infusion and at multiple intervals during 48 h were analyzed for total iron, transferrin-bound iron, and sodium ferric gluconate complex-bound iron.

RESULTS

Forty-nine patients (mean age 12.3 +/- 2.5 yr) participated in the study. Mean serum iron concentrations rapidly increased in a dosage-dependent manner. A rapid rise in total serum iron was followed by a slower, less prominent rise in transferrin-bound iron. This was qualitatively confirmed by visualization of the transferrin bands from polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Single-dose pharmacokinetics of sodium ferric gluconate complex-bound iron was described using noncompartmental analytical methods. Mean values for the 1.5 mg/Kg dose were as follows: t(1/2) 2.0 +/- 0.7 h, Cmax 1287 mcg/dl, Tmax 1.1 +/- 0.23 h, Cl 0.69 +/- 0.50 L/h, Vd 1.6 +/- 0.6 L, AUC(0-infinity). 9499 +/- 4089 mcg x hr/dl.

CONCLUSIONS

The infusion of sodium ferric gluconate complex to pediatric patients who receive hemodialysis appears to result in a delayed transfer of iron to transferrin, likely after an initial movement through the reticuloendothelial system. Differences noted between the pediatric and adult pharmacokinetic data may result from the unique aspects of the study populations and the respective study designs.

Iron therapy for renal anemia: how much needed, how much harmful?

Iron deficiency is the most common cause of hyporesponsiveness to erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients. Iron deficiency can easily be corrected by intravenous iron administration, which is more effective than oral iron supplementation, at least in adult patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Iron status can be monitored by different parameters such as ferritin, transferrin saturation, percentage of hypochromic red blood cells, and/or the reticulocyte hemoglobin content, but an increased erythropoietic response to iron supplementation is the most widely accepted reference standard of iron-deficient erythropoiesis. Parenteral iron therapy is not without acute and chronic adverse events. While provocative animal and in vitro studies suggest induction of inflammation, oxidative stress, and kidney damage by available parenteral iron preparations, several recent clinical studies showed the opposite effects as long as intravenous iron was adequately dosed. Thus, within the recommended international guidelines, parenteral iron administration is safe. Intravenous iron therapy should be withheld during acute infection but not during inflammation. The integration of ESA and intravenous iron therapy into anemia management allowed attainment of target hemoglobin values in the majority of pediatric and adult CKD and ESRD patients.

Darbepoetin alfa for the treatment of anemia in pediatric patients with chronic kidney disease

Darbepoetin alfa, an erythropoiesis-stimulating glycoprotein, has proved efficacious in the treatment of anemia of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in adult subjects. However, little information is available from pediatric populations. We conducted an open-label, non-inferiority, 28-week study comparing the efficacy of darbepoetin alfa with that of recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEpo) in pediatric subjects with CKD. Subjects, aged 1-18, who were receiving stable rHuEpo treatment (n=124) were randomized (1:2) to either continue receiving rHuEpo or convert to darbepoetin alfa, with doses titrated to achieve and maintain hemoglobin (Hb) levels between 10.0 and 12.5 g/dl. Darbepoetin alfa was considered to be non-inferior to rHuEpo if the lower limit of the two-sided 95% confidence interval (CI) for the difference in the mean change in Hb between the two treatment groups was above -1.0 g/dl. The adjusted mean change in Hb between the baseline and the evaluation period for the rHuEpo and darbepoetin alfa groups was -0.16 g/dl and 0.15 g/dl, respectively, with a difference of 0.31 g/dl (95% CI: -0.45, 1.07) between the means. These results, and the comparable safety profiles, demonstrate that darbepoetin alfa is non-inferior to rHuEpo in the treatment of anemia in pediatric patients with CKD.

Sodium ferric gluconate complex maintenance therapy in children on hemodialysis

Intravenous iron therapy is recommended for children and adults who receive hemodialysis (HD) and recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO). However, limited information exists on the use of any maintenance IV iron regimen in children. Therefore, we conducted a prospective, multicenter, open-label trial of maintenance therapy with sodium ferric gluconate complex (SFGC) in iron-replete pediatric HD patients receiving rHuEPO. Patients received SFGC weekly at an initial dose of 1.0 mg kg(-1) week(-1), not to exceed 125 mg. Doses could be adjusted based on iron indices. Twenty-three patients (mean age: 13.2+/-2.39 years) were enrolled and received at least one dose of SFGC, while twelve patients completed the study. After 12 weeks of treatment, the mean SFGC dose delivered was 1.0 mg/kg. Mean TSAT and serum ferritin levels remained within NKF-K/DOQI target ranges and the mean Hgb level remained unchanged from baseline. No unexpected or unusual safety risks were associated with SFGC use. In summary, this experience provides evidence for the safety and efficacy of intravenous SFGC and supports the recommendation that the maintenance SFGC starting dose should be 1.0 mg/kg, not to exceed 125 mg, with subsequent adjustments made according to TSAT and/or serum ferritin levels.

Drug Insight: safety of intravenous iron supplementation with sodium ferric gluconate complex

Intravenous iron is necessary for optimal management of anemia in patients receiving hemodialysis and is utilized in the majority of these patients in the US. The availability of nondextran formulations of intravenous iron has significantly improved the safety of its use. The nondextran iron formulation sodium ferric gluconate complex (SFGC) has been extensively studied in the hemodialysis population, with two large phase IV trials documenting its safety. SFGC is efficacious and, at recommended doses, is associated with a low incidence of adverse events. There have been few comparative studies of the nondextran intravenous iron preparations; however, they are known to have different pharmacokinetic characteristics. There is also evidence to indicate that these compounds differ in terms of their cytotoxic and proinflammatory properties, and their propensity to induce oxidative stress. This paper reviews the current literature on the safety of SFGC and examines the emerging safety issues surrounding the use of intravenous iron.

Anemia in children with chronic kidney disease

Anemia in children with chronic kidney disease (CKD) is common secondary to inadequate erythropoietin production, iron deficiency, blood loss, inflammation, secondary hyperparathyroidism, uremic toxins, and nutritional deficiencies. Anemia has a variety of deleterious consequences, including associations with increased mortality and left ventricular hypertrophy. Recombinant human erythropoietin is effective in treating anemia in children with CKD, and recent studies show that darbepoetin alpha is an attractive alternative because it requires less frequent injections. Iron deficiency is a major cause of anemia that is resistant to erythropoietin or darbepoetin alpha. Although oral iron is effective in some patients, many children, especially those receiving hemodialysis, require intravenous iron to replenish their iron stores. Both acute dosing and chronic dosing of intravenous iron are effective in pediatric patients.