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Gong M, Bai N, Wang P, Su J, Chang Q, Zhang Q. Co-Inoculation with Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Dark Septate Endophytes under Drought Stress: Synergistic or Competitive Effects on Maize Growth, Photosynthesis, Root Hydraulic Properties and Aquaporins? PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:2596. [PMID: 37514211 PMCID: PMC10383269 DOI: 10.3390/plants12142596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and dark septate fungi (DSE) were simultaneously colonized in the root cells of maize. Single AMF and DSE symbiosis have been proven to improve the drought tolerance of maize. However, the effects of both fungi coexisting in maize roots under drought stress are not yet known. In this study, pot experiments of maize seedlings were conducted through four inoculation treatments (single AMF inoculation of Rhizophagus irregularis, single DSE inoculation of Exophiala pisciphila, co-inoculation of AMF + DSE and non-mycorrhizal inoculation) under well-watered (WW) and drought-stressed (DS) conditions. AMF and DSE colonization status, maize physiology and aquaporin gene expression in maize roots were investigated. The objective of this paper was to evaluate whether AMF and DSE had competitive, independent or synergistic effects on regulating the drought tolerance of maize. When maize seedlings of three inoculation treatments were subjected to drought stress, single AMF inoculation had the highest shoot and root dry weight, plant height, root length, osmotic root hydraulic conductivity and hydrostatic root hydraulic conductivity in maize seedlings. However, co-inoculation of AMF + DSE induced the highest stomatal conductance in maize leaves and the lowest H2O2 and O2•- concentration, membrane electrolyte leakage, intercellular CO2 concentration and gene expression level of ZmPIP1;1, ZmPIP1;2, ZmPIP2;1, ZmPIP2;5 and ZmPIP2;6. In addition, co-inoculation of AMF + DSE also obviously down-regulated the GintAQPF1 and GintAQPF2 expression in R. irregularis compared with single AMF inoculation treatment. Under DS stress, there were competitive relationships between AMF and DSE with regard to regulating mycorrhizal colonization, maize growth, root hydraulic conductivity and the gene expression of aquaporins in R. irregularis, but there were synergistic relationships with regard to regulating membrane electrolyte leakage, oxidative damage, photosynthesis and the aquaporin gene expression of maize seedlings. The obtained results improve our knowledge about how the mechanisms of AMF and DSE coexist, promoting the drought tolerance of host plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minggui Gong
- College of Food and Bioengineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China
| | - Na Bai
- College of Food and Bioengineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China
| | - Pengfei Wang
- College of Food and Bioengineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China
| | - Jiajie Su
- College of Food and Bioengineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China
| | - Qingshan Chang
- College of Horticulture and Plant Protection, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China
| | - Qiaoming Zhang
- College of Horticulture and Plant Protection, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China
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Chávez D, Rivas G, Machuca Á, Santos C, Deramond C, Aroca R, Cornejo P. Contribution of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal and Endophytic Fungi to Drought Tolerance in Araucaria araucana Seedlings. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:plants12112116. [PMID: 37299094 DOI: 10.3390/plants12112116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2023] [Revised: 05/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In its natural distribution, Araucaria araucana is a plant species usually exposed to extreme environmental constraints such as wind, volcanism, fires, and low rainfall. This plant is subjected to long periods of drought, accentuated by the current climate emergency, causing plant death, especially in its early growth stages. Understanding the benefits that both arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and endophytic fungi (EF) could provide plants under different water regimes would generate inputs to address the above-mentioned issues. Here, the effect of AMF and EF inoculation (individually and combined) on the morphophysiological variables of A. araucana seedlings subjected to different water regimes was evaluated. Both the AMF and EF inocula were obtained from A. araucana roots growing in natural conditions. The inoculated seedlings were kept for 5 months under standard greenhouse conditions and subsequently subjected to three different irrigation levels for 2 months: 100, 75, and 25% of field capacity (FC). Morphophysiological variables were evaluated over time. Applying AMF and EF + AMF yielded a noticeable survival rate in the most extreme drought conditions (25% FC). Moreover, both the AMF and the EF + AMF treatments promoted an increase in height growth between 6.1 and 16.1%, in the production of aerial biomass between 54.3 and 62.6%, and in root biomass between 42.5 and 65.4%. These treatments also kept the maximum quantum efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm 0.71 for AMF and 0.64 for EF + AMF) stable, as well as high foliar water content (>60%) and stable CO2 assimilation under drought stress. In addition, the EF + AMF treatment at 25% FC increased the total chlorophyll content. In conclusion, using indigenous strains of AMF, alone or in combination with EF, is a beneficial strategy to produce A. araucana seedlings with an enhanced ability to tolerate prolonged drought periods, which could be of great relevance for the survival of these native species under the current climate change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Chávez
- Departamento de Ciencias y Tecnología Vegetal, Universidad de Concepción, Campus Los Ángeles, Juan Antonio Coloma 0201, Los Ángeles 4440000, Chile
| | - Gustavo Rivas
- Departamento de Ciencias y Tecnología Vegetal, Universidad de Concepción, Campus Los Ángeles, Juan Antonio Coloma 0201, Los Ángeles 4440000, Chile
| | - Ángela Machuca
- Departamento de Ciencias y Tecnología Vegetal, Universidad de Concepción, Campus Los Ángeles, Juan Antonio Coloma 0201, Los Ángeles 4440000, Chile
| | - Cledir Santos
- Departamento de Ciencias Químicas y Recursos Naturales, Universidad de La Frontera, Av. Francisco Salazar 01145, Temuco 4811230, Chile
| | - Christian Deramond
- Departamento de Ciencias y Tecnología Vegetal, Universidad de Concepción, Campus Los Ángeles, Juan Antonio Coloma 0201, Los Ángeles 4440000, Chile
| | - Ricardo Aroca
- Estación Experimental del Zaidín, CSIC, Profesor Albareda N°1, 18008 Granada, Spain
| | - Pablo Cornejo
- Escuela de Agronomía, Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas y de los Alimentos, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso, Quillota 2260000, Chile
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Pop-Moldovan V, Corcoz L, Stoian V, Moldovan C, Pleșa A, Vâtcă S, Stoian V, Vidican R. Models of mycorrhizal colonization patterns and strategies induced by biostimulator treatments in Zea mays roots. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:1052066. [PMID: 36466252 PMCID: PMC9713310 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1052066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Agronomic inputs and technologies, especially fertilizers, act on the evolution of the symbiotic partnership between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and cultivated plants. The use of the MycoPatt method for the assessment of mycorrhizas in maize roots leads to the extraction of large parameter databases with an increased resolution over the colonization mechanism. The application of a biostimulator treatment on plants acted toward a reduction of root permissiveness for mycorrhizas. The phenomenon was noticeable through an increased colonization variability that overlapped with plant nutritional needs. The annual characteristic of the plant was highlighted by the simultaneous presence of arbuscules and vesicles, with a high share of arbuscules in the advanced phenophases. Colonized root parts presented numerous arbuscule-dominated areas in all phenophases, which indicated a continuous formation of these structures and an intense nutrient transfer between partners. Mycorrhizal maps showed the slowing effect of the biostimulators on colonization, with one phenophase delay in the case of biostimulated plants compared to the ones without biostimulators. The forecast models presented gradual colonization in plants without biostimulators, with the expansion of new hyphal networks. The use of biostimulators on plants exhibited a lower permissiveness for new colonization areas, and the mechanism relies on hyphae developed in the former phenophases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Pop-Moldovan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Larisa Corcoz
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Valentina Stoian
- Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Cristina Moldovan
- Department of Crop Plant, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Anca Pleșa
- Department of Grasslands and Forage Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Sorin Vâtcă
- Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Vlad Stoian
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Roxana Vidican
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
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Cowan JA, Grady KC, Dijkstra P, Schwartz E, Gehring CA. Invasive and native grasses exert negative plant-soil feedbacks on the woody shrub Artemisia tridentata. Oecologia 2022; 199:1007-1019. [PMID: 35969273 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-022-05236-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Displacement of diverse native plant communities by low-diversity invasive communities is a global problem. In the western United States, the displacement of sagebrush-dominated communities by cheatgrass has increased since the 1920s. Restoration outcomes are poor, potentially due to soil alteration by cheatgrass. We explored the poorly understood role of plant-soil feedbacks in the dominance of cheatgrass in a greenhouse study where uninvaded sagebrush soils were conditioned with either cheatgrass, a native bunchgrass or sagebrush. Sagebrush seedlings were grown in the soils that remained following the removal of conditioning plants. We expected cheatgrass to strongly suppress sagebrush due to a change in belowground microbial communities, conspecifics to have neutral effects and the native bunchgrass to have intermediate effects as it coevolved with sagebrush but belongs to a different functional group. We assessed the effects of conditioning on sagebrush growth, tissue nutrients, and carbon allocation. We also characterized the abundance, diversity and community composition of root microbial associates. Cheatgrass strongly suppressed sagebrush growth at high and low conditioning densities, the native bunchgrass showed suppression at high conditioning densities only and conspecific effects were neutral. Tissue nutrients, amount of root colonization by soil fungi or root microbial community composition were not associated with these plant-soil feedbacks. Although we did not identify the precise mechanism, our results provide key evidence that rapid soil alteration by cheatgrass results in negative plant-soil feedbacks on sagebrush growth. These feedbacks likely contribute to cheatgrass dominance and the poor success of sagebrush restoration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob A Cowan
- School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, USA.
| | - Kevin C Grady
- School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, USA
| | - Paul Dijkstra
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, USA
| | - Egbert Schwartz
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, USA
| | - Catherine A Gehring
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, USA
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From the ground up: Building predictions for how climate change will affect belowground mutualisms, floral traits, and bee behavior. CLIMATE CHANGE ECOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ecochg.2021.100013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Gehring C, Sevanto S, Patterson A, Ulrich DEM, Kuske CR. Ectomycorrhizal and Dark Septate Fungal Associations of Pinyon Pine Are Differentially Affected by Experimental Drought and Warming. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2020; 11:582574. [PMID: 33193530 PMCID: PMC7606852 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2020.582574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Changing climates can cause shifts in temperature and precipitation, resulting in warming and drought in some regions. Although each of these factors has been shown to detrimentally affect forest ecosystems worldwide, information on the impacts of the combined effects of warming and drought is lacking. Forest trees rely on mutualistic root-associated fungi that contribute significantly to plant health and protection against climate stresses. We used a six-year, ecosystem-scale temperature and precipitation manipulation experiment targeted to simulate the climate in 2100 in the Southwestern United States to quantify the effects of drought, warming and combined drought and warming on the root colonization (abundance), species composition and diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi (EMF), and dark septate fungal endophytes in a widespread woodland tree, pinyon pine (Pinus edulis E.). Our results show that pinyon shoot growth after 6 years of these treatments was reduced more by drought than warming. The combined drought and warming treatment reduced the abundance and diversity of EMF more than either treatment alone. Individual ectomycorrhizal fungal taxa, including the drought tolerant Cenococcum geophilum, were present in all treatments but the combined drought and warming treatment. The combined drought and warming treatment also reduced the abundance of dark septate endophytes (DSE), but did not affect their diversity or species composition. The current year shoot growth of the trees correlated positively with ectomycorrhizal fungal diversity, highlighting the importance of diversity in mutualistic relationships to plant growth. Our results suggest that EMF may be more important than DSE to aboveground growth in P. edulis, but also more susceptible to the negative effects of combined climate stressors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Gehring
- Department of Biological Sciences and Center for Adaptable Western Landscapes, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
| | - Sanna Sevanto
- Earth and Environmental Science Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, United States
| | - Adair Patterson
- Department of Biological Sciences and Center for Adaptable Western Landscapes, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
| | | | - Cheryl R. Kuske
- Bioscience Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, United States
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Kowal J, Arrigoni E, Serra J, Bidartondo M. Prevalence and phenology of fine root endophyte colonization across populations of Lycopodiella inundata. MYCORRHIZA 2020; 30:577-587. [PMID: 32734329 PMCID: PMC7392370 DOI: 10.1007/s00572-020-00979-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Mycorrhizal fungi are critical components of terrestrial habitats and agroecosystems. Recently, Mucoromycotina fine root endophyte fungi (MucFRE) were found to engage in nutritional mutualism with Lycopodiella inundata, which belongs to one of the earliest vascular plant lineages known to associate with MucFRE. The extent to which this mutualism plays a role in resilient plant populations can only be understood by examining its occurrence rate and phenological patterns. To test for prevalence and seasonality in colonization, we examined 1305 individual L. inundata roots from 275 plants collected during spring and autumn 2019 across 11 semi-natural heathlands in Britain and the Netherlands. We quantified presence/absence of fine root endophyte (FRE) hyphae and vesicles and explored possible relationships between temperature and precipitation in the months immediately before sampling. Fine root endophyte hyphae were dominant in all of the examined heathlands, and every colonized root had FRE in both cortical cells and root hairs. However, we found significant differences in colonization between the two seasons at every site. Overall, 14% of L. inundata roots were colonized in spring (2.4% with vesicles) compared with 86% in autumn (7.6% with vesicles). Colonization levels between populations were also significantly different, correlating with temperature and precipitation, suggesting some local environments may be more conducive to root and related hyphal growth. These marked seasonal differences in host-plant colonization suggest that results about FRE from single time point collections should be carefully interpreted. Our findings are relevant to habitat restoration, species conservation plans, agricultural bio-inoculation treatments, and microbial diversity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill Kowal
- Department of Comparative Plant & Fungal Biology, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, TW9 3AB, UK.
| | - Elena Arrigoni
- Department of Comparative Plant & Fungal Biology, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, TW9 3AB, UK
| | - Jordi Serra
- Department of Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Martin Bidartondo
- Department of Comparative Plant & Fungal Biology, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, TW9 3AB, UK
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
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Chen J, Akutse KS, Saqib HSA, Wu X, Yang F, Xia X, Wang L, Goettel MS, You M, Gurr GM. Fungal Endophyte Communities of Crucifer Crops Are Seasonally Dynamic and Structured by Plant Identity, Plant Tissue and Environmental Factors. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1519. [PMID: 32760366 PMCID: PMC7373767 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Endophytic fungi are important in diverse plant functions but knowledge of the factors that shape assemblages of these symbionts is lacking. Here, using a culture-dependent approach, we report 4,178 endophytic fungal isolates representing 16 orders isolated from stems, roots and leaves of three cruciferous plant species, Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa L.), radish (Raphanus sativus L.) and white cabbage (B. olerocea L.), collected from 21 focal fields with different landscape contexts and pesticide uses during four seasons (summer, autumn, winter and spring). The colonization rate of fungi was found to be most strongly affected by season, plant identity and plant tissue. The colonization was highest during autumn, followed by summer, spring and lowest during winter. The colonization was highest in B. olerocea (53.2%), followed by B. rapa (42.6%), and lowest in R. sativus (35.0%). The colonization was highest in stems (51.9%) in all plant types, followed by leaves (42.4%) and roots (37.5%). Hypocreales was the dominant order (33.3% of all the isolates), followed by Glomerellales (26.5%), Eurotiales (12.1%), Pleosporales (9.8%) and Capnodiales (6.0%). Fungal endophyte abundance (number of isolates) followed the same pattern as colonization rate, while species richness varied with season and host plant tissue. Ordination analyses showed that the abundance and richness of Hypocreales, Eurotiales and Sordariales were associated with plant roots, while Capnodiales, Pleosporales and Trichosphaeriales were associated with spring. Other environmental factors, elevation, and the proportions of grassland, forest, orchard and waterbodies in the surrounding landscape also exerted effects within some categories of other main effects or for certain fungal taxa. Our results indicate that while fungal endophyte communities of crucifer crops vary strongly with the season, they are also strongly structured by plant identity and plant tissue, to a lesser extent by pesticide use and only weakly by landscape composition. The understanding of the ecological roles of fungal endophytes could contribute to habitat management and consequently improve crop pest management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junhui Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou, China
| | | | - Hafiz Sohaib Ahmed Saqib
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xiaolu Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou, China
| | - Feiying Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xiaofeng Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou, China
| | - Liande Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou, China
| | - Mark S. Goettel
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Minsheng You
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou, China
| | - Geoff M. Gurr
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control of Fujian and Taiwan Crops, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Institute of Applied Ecology, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou, China
- Graham Centre, Charles Sturt University, Orange, NSW, Australia
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