Effects of dietary alternatives (probiotic, green tea powder, and Kombucha tea) as antimicrobial growth promoters on growth, ileal nutrient digestibility, blood parameters, and immune response of broiler chickens

Probiotics in Poultry Nutrition as a Natural Alternative for Antibiotics

Since the early 1950s, antibiotics have been used in poultry for improving feed efficiency and growth performance. Nevertheless, various side effects have appeared, such as antibiotic resistance, antibiotic residues in eggs and meat, and imbalance of beneficial intestinal bacteria. Consequently, it is essential to find other alternatives that include probiotics that improve poultry production. Probiotics are live microorganisms administered in adequate doses and improve host health. Probiotics are available to be used as feed additives, increasing the availability of the nutrients for enhanced growth by digesting the feed properly. Immunity and meat and egg quality can be improved by supplementation of probiotics in poultry feed. Furthermore, the major reason for using probiotics as feed additives is that they can compete with various infectious diseases causing pathogens in poultry's gastrointestinal tract. Hence, this chapter focuses on the types and mechanisms of action of probiotics and their benefits, by feed supplementation, for poultry health and production.

Chemical Composition of Kombucha

Kombucha is a fermented sweetened tea with a mixed fermenting culture of yeast and acetic acid bacteria. While the history of kombucha is not completely clear, it is now available around the world and has shown an increase in availability and demand in the United States market. The proponents of kombucha consumption tout the varied health benefits it can provide. The final kombucha flavor and composition is a function of both the initial tea used and the fermentation process. While the ascribed benefits are varied and numerous, the number of direct studies has been limited. This review focuses on the current state of understanding of the chemical composition and the potential health effects both positive and negative reported in the literature.

Probiotics: Symbiotic Relationship with the Animal Host

Simple Summary

Intestinal health directly influences the profitability of animal production, and so growth-promoting antibiotics have been used in the feed or drinking water to reduce the impact of enteric diseases and improve production parameters. However, these have generated long-term bacterial resistance. In the search for natural alternatives to antibiotics, various probiotic strains have been developed to improve intestinal health and biological indicators in farm animals, which is important to provide the consumer with safe food. This review describes the main probiotic bacteria and yeasts, their in vitro properties and their impact on the antioxidant capacity and intestinal environment of animals. Furthermore, this review outlines the role of probiotics in apparently healthy ruminants, pigs and poultry, including animals with digestive diseases.

Abstract

Antibiotic growth-promoters in animal feeding are known to generate bacterial resistance on commercial farms and have proven deleterious effects on human health. This review addresses the effects of probiotics and their symbiotic relationship with the animal host as a viable alternative for producing healthy meat, eggs, and milk at present and in the future. Probiotics can tolerate the conditions of the gastrointestinal tract, such as the gastric acid, pH and bile salts, to exert beneficial effects on the host. They (probiotics) may also have a beneficial effect on productivity, health and wellbeing in different parameters of animal performance. Probiotics stimulate the native microbiota (microbes that are present in their place of origin) and production of short-chain fatty acids, with proven effects such as antimicrobial, hypocholesterolemic and immunomodulatory effects, resulting in better intestinal health, nutrient absorption capacity and productive responses in ruminant and non-ruminant animals. These beneficial effects of probiotics are specific to each microbial strain; therefore, the isolation and identification of beneficial microorganisms, as well as in vitro and in vivo testing in different categories of farm animals, will guarantee their efficacy, replicability and sustainability in the current production systems.

Novel Insights for Metabiotics Production by Using Artisanal Probiotic Cultures

Wild probiotic consortia of microorganisms (bacteria and yeasts) associated in the artisanal cultures' microbiota (milk kefir grains, water kefir grains and kombucha) are considered valuable promoters for metabiotics (prebiotics, probiotics, postbiotics and paraprobiotics) production. The beneficial effects of the fermented products obtained with the artisanal cultures on human well-being are described by centuries and the interest for them is continuously increasing. The wild origin and microbial diversity of these above-mentioned consortia give them extraordinary protection capacity against microbiological contaminants in unusual physico-chemical conditions and unique fermentative behaviour. This review summarizes the state of the art for the wild artisanal cultures (milk and water kefir grains, respectively, kombucha-SCOBY), their symbiotic functionality, and the ability to ferment unconventional substrates in order to obtain valuable bioactive compounds with in vitro and in vivo beneficial functional properties. Due to the necessity of the bioactives production and their use as metabiotics in the modern consumer's life, artisanal cultures are the perfect sources able to biosynthesize complex functional metabolites (bioactive peptides, antimicrobials, polysaccharides, enzymes, vitamins, cell wall components). Depending on the purposes of the biotechnological fermentation processes, artisanal cultures can be used as starters on different substrates. Current studies show that the microbial synergy between bacteria-yeast and/or bacteria-offers new perspectives to develop functional products (food, feeds, and ingredients) with a great impact on life quality.

Probiotics-Live Biotherapeutics: a Story of Success, Limitations, and Future Prospects-Not Only for Humans

In livestock production, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) represent the most widespread microorganisms used as probiotics. For such critical use, these bacteria must be correctly identified and characterized to ensure their safety and efficiency. Recently, probiotics have become highly recognized as supplements for humans and in particular for animals because of their beneficial outcome on health improvement and well-being maintenance. Various factors, encompassing dietary and management constraints, have been demonstrated to tremendously influence the structure, composition, and activities of gut microbial communities in farm animals. Previous investigations reported the potential of probiotics in animal diets and nutrition. But a high rate of inconsistency in the efficiency of probiotics has been reported. This may be due, in a major part, to the dynamics of the gastrointestinal microbial communities. Under stressing surroundings, the direct-fed microbials may play a key role as the salient limiting factor of the severity of the dysbiosis caused by disruption of the normal intestinal balance. Probiotics are live microorganisms, which confer health benefits on the host by positively modifying the intestinal microflora. Thus, the aim of this review is to summarize and to highlight the positive influence of probiotics and potential probiotic microbe supplementation in animal feed with mention of several limitations.

Transient in situ measurement of kombucha biofilm growth and mechanical properties

Kombucha is a traditional beverage obtained by the fermentation of sugared tea by a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast which has recently re-emerged as a popular lifestyle product with potential health benefits. The characteristic feature of kombucha is the formation of a cellulosic biofilm due to the excretion of bacterial cellulose with high purity and crystallinity. Despite the growing industrial and technological interest in kombucha, current characterization techniques rely on the periodic sampling of tea broth or biofilm and ex situ analysis of its biochemical or microbial composition. Here, we use interfacial shear rheology (ISR) for the transient in situ determination of kombucha biofilm growth directly at the interface. ISR revealed that kombucha biofilm formation is a two step process with clearly distinguishable growth phases. The first phase can be attributed to the initial adsorption of bacteria at the air-water interface and shows great variability, probably due to varying bacteria content and composition. The second phase is initiated by bacterial cellulose excretion and shows astonishing reproducibility regarding onset and final mechanical properties. Hence, ISR qualifies as a new in situ characterization technique for kombucha biofilm growth and bacterial cellulose production.

Bacillus subtilis delivery route: effect on growth performance, intestinal morphology, cecal short-chain fatty acid concentration, and cecal microbiota in broiler chickens

As the poultry industry recedes from the use of antibiotic growth promoters, the need to evaluate the efficacy of possible alternatives and the delivery method that maximizes their effectiveness arises. This study aimed at expounding knowledge on the effect of the delivery method of a probiotic product (Bacillus subtilis fermentation extract) on performance and gut parameters in broiler chickens. A total of 450 fertile eggs sourced from Cobb 500 broiler breeders were randomly allotted to 3 groups: in ovo probiotic (n = 66), in ovo saline (n = 66), and noninjection (n = 200) and incubated for 21 d. On day 18.5 of incubation, 200 μL of either probiotic (10 × 10⁶ cfu) or saline was injected into the amnion. At hatch, chicks were reallotted to 6 new treatment groups: in ovo probiotic, in ovo saline, in-feed antibiotics, in-water probiotic, in-feed probiotics, and control (corn-wheat-soybean diet) in 6 replicate cages and raised for 28 d. Of all hatch parameters evaluated, only percentage pipped eggs was found significant (P < 0.05) with the noninjection group having higher percentage pipped eggs than the other groups. Treatments did not affect the incidence of necrotic enteritis on day 28 (P > 0.05). Irrespective of the delivery method, the probiotic treatments had no significant effect on growth performance. The ileum villus width of the in ovo probiotic treatment was 18% higher than the in ovo saline group (P = 0.05) but not statistically higher than other groups. The jejunum villus height was 23% higher (P = 0.000) in the in ovo probiotic group than in the control group. There was no effect of treatment on total cecal short-chain fatty acid concentration and cecal gut microbiota composition and diversity (P > 0.05), although few unique bacteria differential abundance were recorded per treatment. Conclusively, although probiotic treatments (irrespective of the delivery route) did not affect growth performance, in ovo delivery of the probiotic product enhanced intestinal morphology, without compromising hatch performance and gut homeostasis.

Effects of dietary supplementation with Taiwanese tea byproducts and probiotics on growth performance, lipid metabolism, and the immune response in red feather native chickens

Objective

This study compared the catechin composition of different tea byproducts and investigated the effects of dietary supplementation with green tea byproducts on the accumulation of abdominal fat, the modulation of lipid metabolism, and the inflammatory response in red feather native chickens.

Methods

Bioactive compounds were detected, and in vitro anti-obesity capacity analyzed via 3T3-L1 preadipocytes. In animal experiments, 320 one-day-old red feather native chickens were divided into 4 treatment groups: control, basal diet supplemented with 0.5% Jinxuan byproduct (JBP), basal diet supplemented with 1% JBP, or basal diet supplemented with 5×10⁶ colony-forming unit (CFU)/kg Bacillus amyloliquefaciens+5×10⁶ CFU/kg Saccharomyces cerevisiae (BA+SC). Growth performance, serum characteristics, carcass characteristics, and the mRNA expression of selected genes were measured.

Results

This study compared several cultivars of tea, but Jinxuan showed the highest levels of the anti-obesity compound epigallocatechin gallate. 3T3-L1 preadipocytes treated with Jinxuan extract significantly reduced lipid accumulation. There were no significant differences in growth performance, serum characteristics, or carcass characteristics among the groups. However, in the 0.5% JBP group, mRNA expression of fatty acid synthase (FAS) and acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) were significantly decreased. In the 1% JBP group, FAS, ACC and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ levels were significantly decreased. Moreover, inflammation-related mRNA expression levels were decreased by the addition of JBP.

Conclusion

JBP contained abundant catechins and related bioactive compounds, which reduced lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, however there was no significant reduction in abdominal fat. This may be due to a lack of active anti-obesity compounds or because the major changes in fat metabolism were not in the abdomen. Nonetheless, lipogenesis-related and inflammation-related mRNA expression were reduced in the 1% JBP group. In addition, dietary supplementation with tea byproducts could reduce the massive amount of byproducts created during tea production and modulate lipid metabolism and the inflammatory response in chickens.

L-theanine: an astounding sui generis amino acid in poultry nutrition

L-theanine (γ-Glutamylethylamide) is a nonprotein water soluble amino acid (AA) mostly found in leaves of Camellia sinensis (green tea). This is a key component of green tea and is considered as the most abundant form of total AAs in green tea (i.e., about 50%). L-theanine is an exclusive taste ingredient of tea producing an attractive flavor and aroma in tea. It has biological effects such as antioxidant, growth promoter, immune booster, anti-stresser, hepatoprotective, antitumor, antiaging, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antianxiety activities that are worth noticing. It could reduce the oxidative impairment by reducing the synthesis of reactive oxygen species, oxidative parameters, and lipid damage as well as increasing the activity of antioxidant enzymes. The oral ingestion of L-theanine enhanced γδ T-cell proliferation. Therefore, it is being considered an essential compound of green tea that has the ability to improve immune function. The L-theanine can be used as a potential treatment for hepatic injury and immune-related liver diseases via the downregulation of the inflammatory response through the initiation of nitric oxide synthesis and glutathione production which are likely to be critical for the control of hepatic diseases as well as for the improvement of immune function. In addition, it could be used as a best natural feed additive with a potent antistressor by decreasing the levels of corticosterone, dopamine, and noradrenaline. After systematically reviewing the literature, it is noticed that most studies were carried out on mice, pig, human, and butterfly; while dietary supplementation studies of L-theanine in animal and poultry especially among broilers are very limited because of less awareness of this AA. So, the aim of this review is to encourage the veterinarian and poultry researchers to conduct more research at the molecular level about this AA to expose its more beneficial effects and its mechanism of absorption for potential use of this unique green tea AA in poultry nutrition.

Nutritional applications and beneficial health applications of green tea and l-theanine in some animal species: A review

Green tea (Camellia sinensis) is a popular herbal plant with abundant health benefits, and thus, it has been used as a potent antioxidant for a long time. Based on the available literature, the diversity and the availability of multifunctional compounds in green tea offer its noteworthy potential against many diseases such as liver and heart diseases, inflammatory conditions and different metabolic syndromes. Owing to its bioactive constituents including caffeine, amino acids, l-theanine, polyphenols/flavonoids and carbohydrates among other potent molecules, green tea has many pharmacological and physiological effects. The effects of green tea include anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, anti-stress, hypolipidaemic, hypocholesterolaemic, skin/collagen protective, hepatoprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-microbial, anti-infective, anti-parasitic, anti-cancerous, inhibition of tumorigenesis and angiogenesis, anti-mutagenic, and memory and bone health-improving activities. Apart from its utilization in humans, green tea has also played a significant role in livestock production such as in dairy, piggery, goatry and poultry industries. Supplementation of animal feeds with green tea and its products is in line with the modern concepts of organic livestock production. Hence, incorporating green tea or green tea by-products into the diet of poultry and other livestock can enhance the value of the products obtained from these animals. Herein, an effort is made to extend the knowledge on the importance and useful applications of green tea and its important constituents in animal production including poultry. This review will be a guideline for researchers and entrepreneurs who want to explore the utilization of feeds supplemented with green tea and green tea by-products for the enhancement of livestock production.

Effects of Supplementation of Branches and Leaves Trimmed from Tea Plant on Growth Performance, Rumen Fermentation and Meat Composition of Nanjiang Yellow Goats

Simple Summary

The effects of supplementation of branches and leaves trimmed from tea tree (BLTT) on growth performance, rumen fermentation characteristics and meat composition of fattening Nanjiang Yellow goats were studied. Supplementation of 4% BLTT increased final body weight of goats and also increased the activity of superoxide dismutase, while glutathione peroxidase and malondialdehyde followed the quadratic curve. Quadratic curves were also observed for villus height, crypt depth and the ratio of villus height to crypt depth in the jejunum. The quadratic effect was obtained for total essential amino acids, and individual amino acids threonine and leucine. Supplementation of 4% BLTT decreased the saturated fatty acid C16:0, and a quadratic effect was observed for polyunsaturated fatty acid C18:3 (n−3). From the present study, it is concluded that BLTT supplementation has a positive effect on body antioxidative status, gastrointestinal development, rumen fermentation characteristics and overall hence growth performance and meat composition in goats.

Abstract

Thirty-two 6-month-old, healthy Nanjiang Yellow goats (34.6 ± 4.16 kg) were randomly divided into four treatments to evaluate the supplementary effects of branches and leaves trimmed from tea tree (BLTT) on growth performance, rumen fermentation characteristics, and meat composition in fattening goats. The control goats were fed a basal diet. Treatments 1, 2 and 3 were fed 2%, 4% and 6% of BLTT respectively. After a 60 d feeding trial, blood samples were collected for the analysis of the antioxidant profile and goats were slaughtered to obtain the rumen fluid and carcass samples for determination of rumen fermentation characteristics and meat composition perameters. Increased final body weight was observed in goats fed 4% BLTT compared with control. The activity of superoxide dismutase was increased in the 4% BLTT-treated group, while glutathione peroxidase and malondialdehyde followed the quadratic curve. Quadratic curves were also observed for villus height, crypt depth and the ratio of villus height to crypt depth in the jejunum. The quadratic effect was obtained for total essential amino acids, and individual amino acids threonine and leucine. The saturated fatty acid C16:0 was decreased with 4% of BLTT supplementation, and a quadratic effect was observed for polyunsaturated fatty acid C18:3 (n−3). To sum up, our findings revealed that BLTT supplementation has a positive effect on body antioxidative status, gastrointestinal development, rumen fermentation characteristics and overall growth performance and meat quality in goats.

Influence of Graded Levels of l-Theanine Dietary Supplementation on Growth Performance, Carcass Traits, Meat Quality, Organs Histomorphometry, Blood Chemistry and Immune Response of Broiler Chickens

l-theanine is a water-soluble non-proteinous amino acid mainly found in green tea leaves. Despite the availability of abundant literature on green tea, studies on the use of l-theanine as a feed additive in animals, and especially broilers are limited. The objective of this study was, therefore, to evaluate the effect of different dietary levels of l-theanine on meat quality, growth performance, immune response, and blood metabolites in broilers. A total of 400 day-old broiler chicks were randomly divided into four treatment groups using a completely randomized design; C-control, basal diet; 100LT-basal diet + 100 mg l-theanine/kg diet; 200LT-basal diet + 200 mg l-theanine/kg diet; and 300LT-basal diet + 300 mg l-theanine/kg diet. Results revealed that the intermediate level of l-theanine (200 mg/kg diet) showed better results in terms of body weight gain (BWG), feed consumed (FC), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) as compared with the other supplemented groups and the control. The live weight eviscerated weight and gizzard weight were higher in all l-theanine levels as compared to those of the control group. Increased weight (p ≤ 0.05) of spleen and bursa were found in group 200LT (200 mg l-theanine/kg diet). Concerning meat color parameters, values for yellowness (b*), and redness (a*) were greater in l-theanine-supplemented groups than the control. Supplementing broiler diet with l-theanine reduced (p = 0.02) total serum cholesterol contents while increased HDL. Further analysis revealed lower relative serum cytokines (IL-2 and INF-γ) and reduced mRNA expression of TNF-α and IL-6 in thymus, and IFN-γ and IL-2 in spleen in the treated group. Moreover, supplementation with 200 mg/kg of l-theanine improved antioxidant status in blood by increasing SOD, GSH-Px, and relative CAT levels. It is concluded that the optimum supplementation level of l-theanine is 200 mg/kg of diet because it resulted in improved performance parameters in broilers. However, higher levels of l-theanine (300 mg/kg diet) may have deleterious effects on performance and health of broiler chickens.

Effect of probiotics on the basis of Bacillus subtilis and Bifidobacterium longum on the biochemical parameters of the animal organism

For the purpose of safe modulation of the intestinal microflora, probiotics have been increasingly used in recent years. In the present work, the effect of the probiotic sporobacterin (Bacillus subtilis 534) (I group) and soybean-bifidum (Bifidobacterium longum) (II group) on male rats of the Wistar line was evaluated. In assessing nonspecific immunity in vitro, there was an increase in the level of baseline level in the first and second groups (by 8.3 and 12.2% more control). The influence of probiotic preparations on the intestinal normoflora was assessed using PCR. Bifidumbacterin increased the normal microflora, in particular, Escherichia coli 1.55 times, Lactobacillus 1.26 times, Enterococcus 1.3 times as much control; the level of conditionally pathogenic microflora, in particular, Proteus spp. decreased by 1.3 times in comparison with the control. Sporobacterin also contributed to an increase in the amount of E. coli (1.55 times) and Lactobacillus (0.9 times). When a culture of Bifidobacterium longum was introduced, a selective reduction in the loss of chemical elements was observed against the background of the diet used. At the end of the experiment, the content of calcium in the body tissues of animals of group II exceeded this indicator in group I by 3.9%, phosphorus by 17.6%, copper by 28.5%, and zinc by 15.2%. The totality of the results obtained by us indicates that inclusion of Bifidumbacterium longum in the diet of animals makes the use of this preparation in the correction of mineral imbalance and improves the microflora of the intestines of animals by reducing the number of representatives of opportunistic microflora against the background of an increase in the number of basic representatives of normal microbiocenosis. Also, the use of probiotic drugs as additives leads to a slight increase in the level of nonspecific immunity, which increases the natural resistance of the organism.

Effects of dietary supplementation with green tea waste on growth, digestive enzyme and lipid metabolism of juvenile hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus × O. aureus

An 8-week feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary supplementation with green tea waste (GTW) on growth, digestive enzyme and lipid metabolism of juvenile hybrid tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus × O. aureus. The fish (initial mean body weight, 12.63 ± 0.75 g) were fed five experimental diets that included 0 (control), 0.8, 1.6, 3.2 or 6.4 % of GTW in triplicate aquaria, twice daily. Growth performance, plasma metabolites content and liver and intestine digestive enzyme activities were determined. Fish accepted well all experimental diets during the trial, and no mortality was observed. The weight gain increased (P < 0.05) with the increase in GTW inclusion level up to 1.6 %, after which it decreased, but no significant differences between the control and high level (3.2 or 6.4 % of GTW) groups were observed. Moreover, fish fed on diets containing 0.8 and 1.6 % GTW had lower feed conversion ratio (FCR, 1.75 and 1.73, respectively) and had better protein deposition (higher protein efficiency ratio, PER, 1.73 and 1.71, respectively), compared to other treatments. No differences among groups were observed in whole body and dorsal muscle composition with the exception of lipid content which was lower in fish fed 6.4 % GTW diets, compared to other treatments. Lipase activities in liver or intestine were higher in fish fed GTW-supplemented diets with the exception of intestine lipase activities, which was unaffected, compared to the control. Similarly, liver lipoprotein lipase activities were also increased in fish fed diets supplemented a medium dose of GTW (1.6 or 3.2 %), compared to other treatments. However, intestine amylase activities were decreased in fish fed diets containing a high dose of GTW (3.2 and 6.4 %); while the liver amylase activities were unaffected by the GTW supplementation. Blood chemistry parameters were affected by GTW inclusion, except the values of triglycerides, which was unaffected. The values of total cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and LDL cholesterol increased with increasing GTW inclusion level up to 3.2 %, after which the values decreased. These results indicate that diets supplemented with appropriate concentration of GTW (from 0.8 to 1.6 %) may potentially serve as an effective functional food and additive for tilapia to improve growth performance, digestion efficacy and fat metabolism.