Crystal structure of VnfH, the iron protein component of vanadium nitrogenase

Cross-Coupling of Mo- and V-Nitrogenases Permits Protein-Mediated Protection from Oxygen Deactivation

Nitrogenases catalyze dinitrogen (N2) fixation to ammonia (NH3). While these enzymes are highly sensitive to deactivation by molecular oxygen (O2) they can be produced by obligate aerobes for diazotrophy, necessitating a mechanism by which nitrogenase can be protected from deactivation. In the bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii, one mode of such protection involves an O2-responsive ferredoxin-type protein ("Shethna protein II", or "FeSII") which is thought to bind with Mo-dependent nitrogenase's two component proteins (NifH and NifDK) to form a catalytically stalled yet O2-tolerant tripartite protein complex. This protection mechanism has been reported for Mo-nitrogenase, however, in vitro assays with V-nitrogenase suggest that this mechanism is not universal to the three known nitrogenase isoforms. Here we report that the reductase of the V-nitrogenase (VnfH) can engage in this FeSII-mediated protection mechanism when cross-coupled with Mo-nitrogenase NifDK. Interestingly, the cross-coupling of the Mo-nitrogenase reductase NifH with the V-nitrogenase VnfDGK protein does not yield such protection.

The iron nitrogenase reduces carbon dioxide to formate and methane under physiological conditions: A route to feedstock chemicals

Nitrogenases are the only known enzymes that reduce molecular nitrogen (N2) to ammonia. Recent findings have demonstrated that nitrogenases also reduce the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2), suggesting CO2 to be a competitor of N2. However, the impact of omnipresent CO2 on N2 fixation has not been investigated to date. Here, we study the competing reduction of CO2 and N2 by the two nitrogenases of Rhodobacter capsulatus, the molybdenum and the iron nitrogenase. The iron nitrogenase is almost threefold more efficient in CO2 reduction and profoundly less selective for N2 than the molybdenum isoform under mixtures of N2 and CO2. Correspondingly, the growth rate of diazotrophically grown R. capsulatus strains relying on the iron nitrogenase notably decreased after adding CO2. The in vivo CO2 activity of the iron nitrogenase facilitates the light-driven extracellular accumulation of formate and methane, one-carbon substrates for other microbes, and feedstock chemicals for a circular economy.

Structural comparison of (hyper-)thermophilic nitrogenase reductases from three marine Methanococcales

The nitrogenase reductase NifH catalyses ATP-dependent electron delivery to the Mo-nitrogenase, a reaction central to biological dinitrogen (N2) fixation. While NifHs have been extensively studied in bacteria, structural information about their archaeal counterparts is limited. Archaeal NifHs are considered more ancient, particularly those from Methanococcales, a group of marine hydrogenotrophic methanogens, which includes diazotrophs growing at temperatures near 92 °C. Here, we structurally and biochemically analyse NifHs from three Methanococcales, offering the X-ray crystal structures from meso-, thermo-, and hyperthermophilic methanogens. While NifH from Methanococcus maripaludis (37 °C) was obtained through heterologous recombinant expression, the proteins from Methanothermococcus thermolithotrophicus (65 °C) and Methanocaldococcus infernus (85 °C) were natively purified from the diazotrophic archaea. The structures from M. thermolithotrophicus crystallised as isolated exhibit high flexibility. In contrast, the complexes of NifH with MgADP obtained from the three methanogens are superposable, more rigid, and present remarkable structural conservation with their homologues. They retain key structural features of P-loop NTPases and share similar electrostatic profiles with the counterpart from the bacterial model organism Azotobacter vinelandii. In comparison to the NifH from the phylogenetically distant Methanosarcina acetivorans, these reductases do not cross-react significantly with Mo-nitrogenase from A. vinelandii. However, they associate with bacterial nitrogenase when ADP·AlF 4 - is added to mimic a transient reactive state. Accordingly, detailed surface analyses suggest that subtle substitutions would affect optimal binding during the catalytic cycle between the NifH from Methanococcales and the bacterial nitrogenase, implying differences in the N2-machinery from these ancient archaea.

Characterization of the iron-sulfur clusters in the nitrogenase-like reductase CfbC/D required for coenzyme F430 biosynthesis

Coenzyme F430 is a nickel-containing tetrapyrrole, serving as the prosthetic group of methyl-coenzyme M reductase in methanogenic and methanotrophic archaea. During coenzyme F430 biosynthesis, the tetrapyrrole macrocycle is reduced by the nitrogenase-like CfbC/D system consisting of the reductase component CfbC and the catalytic component CfbD. Both components are homodimeric proteins, each carrying a [4Fe-4S] cluster. Here, the ligands of the [4Fe-4S] clusters of CfbC2 and CfbD2 were identified revealing an all cysteine ligation of both clusters. Moreover, the midpoint potentials of the [4Fe-4S] clusters were determined to be -256 mV for CfbC2 and -407 mV for CfbD2. These midpoint potentials indicate that the consecutive thermodynamically unfavorable 6 individual "up-hill" electron transfers to the organic moiety of the Ni2+-sirohydrochlorin a,c-diamide substrate require an intricate interplay of ATP-binding, hydrolysis, protein complex formation and release to drive product formation, which is a common theme in nitrogenase-like systems.

Emergence of an Orphan Nitrogenase Protein Following Atmospheric Oxygenation

Molecular innovations within key metabolisms can have profound impacts on element cycling and ecological distribution. Yet, much of the molecular foundations of early evolved enzymes and metabolisms are unknown. Here, we bring one such mystery to relief by probing the birth and evolution of the G-subunit protein, an integral component of certain members of the nitrogenase family, the only enzymes capable of biological nitrogen fixation. The G-subunit is a Paleoproterozoic-age orphan protein that appears more than 1 billion years after the origin of nitrogenases. We show that the G-subunit arose with novel nitrogenase metal dependence and the ecological expansion of nitrogen-fixing microbes following the transition in environmental metal availabilities and atmospheric oxygenation that began ∼2.5 billion years ago. We identify molecular features that suggest early G-subunit proteins mediated cofactor or protein interactions required for novel metal dependency, priming ancient nitrogenases and their hosts to exploit these newly diversified geochemical environments. We further examined the degree of functional specialization in G-subunit evolution with extant and ancestral homologs using laboratory reconstruction experiments. Our results indicate that permanent recruitment of the orphan protein depended on the prior establishment of conserved molecular features and showcase how contingent evolutionary novelties might shape ecologically important microbial innovations.

Catalysis and structure of nitrogenases

In providing bioavailable nitrogen as building blocks for all classes of biomacromolecules, biological nitrogen fixation is an essential process for all organismic life. Only a single enzyme, nitrogenase, performs this task at ambient conditions and with ATP as an energy source. The assembly of the complex iron-sulfur enzyme nitrogenase and its catalytic mechanism remains a matter of intense study. Recent progress in the structural analysis of the three known isoforms of nitrogenase-differentiated primarily by the heterometal in their active site cofactor-has revealed a degree of structural plasticity of these clusters that suggest two distinct binding sites for substrates and reaction intermediates. A mechanistic proposal based on this finding integrates most of the available experimental data. Furthermore, the first applications of high-resolution cryo-electron microscopy have highlighted further dynamic conformational changes. Structures obtained under turnover conditions support the proposed alternating half-site reactivity in the C2-symmetric nitrogenase complex.

Enzymatic Fischer-Tropsch-Type Reactions

The Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process converts a mixture of CO and H2 into liquid hydrocarbons as a major component of the gas-to-liquid technology for the production of synthetic fuels. Contrary to the energy-demanding chemical FT process, the enzymatic FT-type reactions catalyzed by nitrogenase enzymes, their metalloclusters, and synthetic mimics utilize H+ and e- as the reducing equivalents to reduce CO, CO2, and CN- into hydrocarbons under ambient conditions. The C1 chemistry exemplified by these FT-type reactions is underscored by the structural and electronic properties of the nitrogenase-associated metallocenters, and recent studies have pointed to the potential relevance of this reactivity to nitrogenase mechanism, prebiotic chemistry, and biotechnological applications. This review will provide an overview of the features of nitrogenase enzymes and associated metalloclusters, followed by a detailed discussion of the activities of various nitrogenase-derived FT systems and plausible mechanisms of the enzymatic FT reactions, highlighting the versatility of this unique reactivity while providing perspectives onto its mechanistic, evolutionary, and biotechnological implications.

Overview of physiological, biochemical, and regulatory aspects of nitrogen fixation in Azotobacter vinelandii

Understanding how Nature accomplishes the reduction of inert nitrogen gas to form metabolically tractable ammonia at ambient temperature and pressure has challenged scientists for more than a century. Such an understanding is a key aspect toward accomplishing the transfer of the genetic determinants of biological nitrogen fixation to crop plants as well as for the development of improved synthetic catalysts based on the biological mechanism. Over the past 30 years, the free-living nitrogen-fixing bacterium Azotobacter vinelandii emerged as a preferred model organism for mechanistic, structural, genetic, and physiological studies aimed at understanding biological nitrogen fixation. This review provides a contemporary overview of these studies and places them within the context of their historical development.

Nitrogenase Fe Protein: A Multi-Tasking Player in Substrate Reduction and Metallocluster Assembly

The Fe protein of nitrogenase plays multiple roles in substrate reduction and metallocluster assembly. Best known for its function to transfer electrons to its catalytic partner during nitrogenase catalysis, the Fe protein is also a key player in the biosynthesis of the complex metalloclusters of nitrogenase. In addition, it can function as a reductase on its own and affect the ambient reduction of CO₂ or CO to hydrocarbons. This review will provide an overview of the properties and functions of the Fe protein, highlighting the relevance of this unique FeS enzyme to areas related to the catalysis, biosynthesis, and applications of the fascinating nitrogenase system.

Structural basis for coupled ATP-driven electron transfer in the double-cubane cluster protein

Electron transfers coupled to the hydrolysis of ATP allow various metalloenzymes to catalyze reductions at very negative reduction potentials. The double-cubane cluster protein (DCCP) catalyzes the reduction of small molecules, such as acetylene and hydrazine, with electrons provided by its cognate ATP-hydrolyzing reductase (DCCP-R). How ATP-driven electron transfer occurs is not known. To resolve the structural basis for ATP-driven electron transfer, we solved the structures of the DCCP:DCCP-R complex in three different states. The structures show that the DCCP-R homodimer is covalently bridged by a [4Fe4S] cluster that is aligned with the twofold axis of the DCCP homodimer, positioning the [4Fe4S] cluster to enable electron transfer to both double-cubane clusters in the DCCP dimer. DCCP and DCCP-R form stable complexes independent of oxidation state or nucleotides present, and electron transfer requires the hydrolysis of ATP. Electron transfer appears to be additionally driven by modulating the angle between the helices binding the [4Fe4S] cluster. We observed hydrogen bond networks running from the ATP binding site via the [4Fe4S] cluster in DCCP-R to the double-cubane cluster in DCCP, allowing the propagation of conformational changes. Remarkable similarities between the DCCP:DCCP-R complex and the nonhomologous nitrogenases suggest a convergent evolution of catalytic strategies to achieve ATP-driven electron transfers between iron-sulfur clusters.

Structural analysis of the reductase component AnfH of iron-only nitrogenase from Azotobacter vinelandii

Biological nitrogen fixation, the conversion of atmospheric dinitrogen into bioavailable ammonium, is exclusively catalyzed by the enzyme nitrogenase that is present in nitrogen-fixing organisms, the diazotrophs. So far, three different nitrogenase variants, encoded in their corresponding, distinct gene clusters, have been found in nature. Each one of these consists of a catalytic dinitrogenase component and a unique, ATP-dependent reductase, the Fe protein. The three variant nitrogenases differ in the composition of the active site and contain either molybdenum, vanadium or only iron in the dinitrogenase component. Here we present the 2.0 Å resolution crystal structure of the ADP-bound reductase component AnfH of the iron-only nitrogenase from the model diazotroph Azotobacter vinelandii. A comparison of this structure with the ones reported for the two other Fe protein homologs NifH and VnfH in the ADP-bound state shows that all are adopting the same conformation. However, cross-reactivity assays with the three nitrogenase homologs revealed AnfH to be compatible with iron-only nitrogenase and to a lesser degree with the vanadium-containing enzyme, but not with molybdenum nitrogenase.

Expression, Isolation, and Characterization of Vanadium Nitrogenase from Azotobacter vinelandii

Nitrogenases are the sole enzymes known to mediate biological nitrogen fixation, an essential process for sustaining life on earth. Among the three known variants, molybdenum nitrogenase is the best-studied to date. Recent work on the alternative vanadium nitrogenase provided important insights into the mechanism of nitrogen fixation since this enzyme differs from its molybdenum counterpart in some important aspects. Here, we present a protocol to obtain unmodified vanadium nitrogenase in high yield and purity from the paradigmatic diazotroph Azotobacter vinelandii, including procedures for cell cultivation, purification, and protein characterization.

CO Binding to the FeV Cofactor of CO-Reducing Vanadium Nitrogenase at Atomic Resolution

Nitrogenases reduce N2 , the most abundant element in Earth's atmosphere that is otherwise resistant to chemical conversions due to its stable triple bond. Vanadium nitrogenase stands out in that it additionally processes carbon monoxide, a known inhibitor of the reduction of all substrates other than H+ . The reduction of CO leads to the formation of hydrocarbon products, holding the potential for biotechnological applications in analogy to the industrial Fischer-Tropsch process. Here we report the most highly resolved structure of vanadium nitrogenase to date at 1.0 Å resolution, with CO bound to the active site cofactor after catalytic turnover. CO bridges iron ions Fe2 and Fe6, replacing sulfide S2B, in a binding mode that is in line with previous reports on the CO complex of molybdenum nitrogenase. We discuss the structural consequences of continued turnover when CO is removed, which involve the replacement of CO possibly by OH- , the movement of Q176D and K361D , the return of sulfide and the emergence of two additional water molecules that are absent in the CO-bound state.

Revealing a role for the G subunit in mediating interactions between the nitrogenase component proteins

Azotobacter vinelandii contains three forms of nitrogenase known as the Mo-, V-, and Fe-nitrogenases. They are all two-component enzyme systems, where the catalytic component, referred to as NifDK, VnfDGK, and AnfDGK, associates with the reductase component, the Fe protein or NifH, VnfH, and AnfH respectively. AnfDGK and VnfDGK have an additional subunit compared to NifDK, termed gamma or AnfG and VnfG, whose role is unknown. The expression of each nitrogenase is tightly regulated by metal availability, however it is known that there is crosstalk between the Mo- and V‑nitrogenases but the Fe‑nitrogenase components cannot support substrate reduction with its Mo‑nitrogenase counterparts. Here, docking models for the nitrogenase complexes were generated in ClusPro 2.0 based on the crystal structure of the Mo‑nitrogenase and refined using the HADDOCK 2.2 refinement interface to identify structural determinants that enable crosstalk between the Mo- and V‑nitrogenase but not the Fe‑nitrogenase. Differing salt bridge interactions were identified at the binding interface of each complex. Specifically, positively charged residues of VnfG enable complementary interactions with NifH and VnfH but not AnfH. Similarly, negatively charged residues of AnfG enable interactions with AnfH but not NifH or VnfH. A role for the G subunit is revealed where VnfG could be mediating crosstalk between the Mo- and V‑nitrogenases while the AnfG subunit on AnfDGK makes interactions with NifH and VnfH unfavorable, reducing competition with NifDK and funneling electrons to the most efficient nitrogenase.

Quantum Mechanics/Molecular Mechanics Study of Resting-State Vanadium Nitrogenase: Molecular and Electronic Structure of the Iron-Vanadium Cofactor

The nitrogenase enzymes are responsible for all biological nitrogen reduction. How this is accomplished at the atomic level, however, has still not been established. The molybdenum-dependent nitrogenase has been extensively studied and is the most active catalyst for dinitrogen reduction of the nitrogenase enzymes. The vanadium-dependent form, on the other hand, displays different reactivity, being capable of CO and CO2 reduction to hydrocarbons. Only recently did a crystal structure of the VFe protein of vanadium nitrogenase become available, paving the way for detailed theoretical studies of the iron-vanadium cofactor (FeVco) within the protein matrix. The crystal structure revealed a bridging 4-atom ligand between two Fe atoms, proposed to be either a CO32- or NO3- ligand. Using a quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics model of the VFe protein, starting from the 1.35 Å crystal structure, we have systematically explored multiple computational models for FeVco, considering either a CO32- or NO3- ligand, three different redox states, and multiple broken-symmetry states. We find that only a [VFe7S8C(CO3)]2- model for FeVco reproduces the crystal structure of FeVco well, as seen in a comparison of the Fe-Fe and V-Fe distances in the computed models. Furthermore, a broken-symmetry solution with Fe2, Fe3, and Fe5 spin-down (BS7-235) is energetically preferred. The electronic structure of the [VFe7S8C(CO3)]2- BS7-235 model is compared to our [MoFe7S9C]- BS7-235 model of FeMoco via localized orbital analysis and is discussed in terms of local oxidation states and different degrees of delocalization. As previously found from Fe X-ray absorption spectroscopy studies, the Fe part of FeVco is reduced compared to FeMoco, and the calculations reveal Fe5 as locally ferrous. This suggests resting-state FeVco to be analogous to an unprotonated E1 state of FeMoco. Furthermore, V-Fe interactions in FeVco are not as strong compared to Mo-Fe interactions in FeMoco. These clear differences in the electronic structures of otherwise similar cofactors suggest an explanation for distinct differences in reactivity.

Reactivity, Mechanism, and Assembly of the Alternative Nitrogenases

Biological nitrogen fixation is catalyzed by the enzyme nitrogenase, which facilitates the cleavage of the relatively inert triple bond of N2. Nitrogenase is most commonly associated with the molybdenum-iron cofactor called FeMoco or the M-cluster, and it has been the subject of extensive structural and spectroscopic characterization over the past 60 years. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, two "alternative nitrogenase" systems were discovered, isolated, and found to incorporate V or Fe in place of Mo. These systems are regulated by separate gene clusters; however, there is a high degree of structural and functional similarity between each nitrogenase. Limited studies with the V- and Fe-nitrogenases initially demonstrated that these enzymes were analogously active as the Mo-nitrogenase, but more recent investigations have found capabilities that are unique to the alternative systems. In this review, we will discuss the reactivity, biosynthetic, and mechanistic proposals for the alternative nitrogenases as well as their electronic and structural properties in comparison to the well-characterized Mo-dependent system. Studies over the past 10 years have been particularly fruitful, though key aspects about V- and Fe-nitrogenases remain unexplored.

The Spectroscopy of Nitrogenases

Nitrogenases are responsible for biological nitrogen fixation, a crucial step in the biogeochemical nitrogen cycle. These enzymes utilize a two-component protein system and a series of iron-sulfur clusters to perform this reaction, culminating at the FeMco active site (M = Mo, V, Fe), which is capable of binding and reducing N2 to 2NH3. In this review, we summarize how different spectroscopic approaches have shed light on various aspects of these enzymes, including their structure, mechanism, alternative reactivity, and maturation. Synthetic model chemistry and theory have also played significant roles in developing our present understanding of these systems and are discussed in the context of their contributions to interpreting the nature of nitrogenases. Despite years of significant progress, there is still much to be learned from these enzymes through spectroscopic means, and we highlight where further spectroscopic investigations are needed.

Reduction of Substrates by Nitrogenases

Nitrogenase is the enzyme that catalyzes biological N₂ reduction to NH₃. This enzyme achieves an impressive rate enhancement over the uncatalyzed reaction. Given the high demand for N₂ fixation to support food and chemical production and the heavy reliance of the industrial Haber-Bosch nitrogen fixation reaction on fossil fuels, there is a strong need to elucidate how nitrogenase achieves this difficult reaction under benign conditions as a means of informing the design of next generation synthetic catalysts. This Review summarizes recent progress in addressing how nitrogenase catalyzes the reduction of an array of substrates. New insights into the mechanism of N₂ and proton reduction are first considered. This is followed by a summary of recent gains in understanding the reduction of a number of other nitrogenous compounds not considered to be physiological substrates. Progress in understanding the reduction of a wide range of C-based substrates, including CO and CO₂, is also discussed, and remaining challenges in understanding nitrogenase substrate reduction are considered.