Nephroprotective effect of catechin on gentamicin-induced experimental nephrotoxicity

(+)-Catechin Alleviates CCI-Induced Neuropathic Pain in Rats by Modulating the IL34/CSFIR Axis and Attenuating the Schwann Cell-Macrophage Cascade Response in the DRG

The aim of this study was to investigate the potential therapeutic applications of (+)-catechin in the treatment of neuropathic pain. In vivo study, 32 SD rats were randomly divided into four groups: sham group, chronic constriction injury (CCI) group, CCI + ibuprofen group and CCI+ (+)-catechin group. They were subjected to behavioural tests, ELISA, immunohistochemistry and Western blotting. The mechanisms involved were investigated using specific inhibitors in cell experiments. Results of in vivo experiments showed that (+)-catechin could reduce the cold sensitivity pain in a rat model of CCI; ELISA and immunohistochemistry results showed that (+)-catechin could decrease the levels of IL-8, IL-6, TNF-α, CCL2 and CCL5 in serum and the expression levels of nNOS, COX2, IL6, TNF-α, IBA-1 and CSF1R in DRG of CCI rats. Finally, western blot confirmed that (+)-catechin could diminish the levels of IL-34/CSF1R/JAK2/STAT3 signalling pathway in DRG of CCI rats. In vitro studies showed that (+)-catechin reduced IL-34 secretion in LPS-induced RSC96 cells. Meanwhile, (+)-catechin administration in LPS-induced Schwann cell-conditioned medium (L-CM) significantly inhibited the proliferation and migration of RAW264.7 cells; in addition, L-CM+(+)-catechin reduced the activation of the CSF1R/JAK2/STAT3 signalling pathway. (+)-Catechin attenuated the Schwann cell-macrophage cascade response in the DRG by modulating the IL34/CSFIR axis and inhibiting activation of the JAK2/STAT3 pathway, thereby attenuating CCI-induced neuropathic pain in rats.

Dimethyl Fumarate Attenuates Di-(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate-Induced Nephrotoxicity Through the Nrf2/HO-1 and NF-κB Signaling Pathways

This study aimed to clarify the nephroprotective effect of dimethyl fumarate (DMF) against Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)-induced nephrotoxicity in both in vitro and in vivo models. The HEK-293 cells were exposed to different concentrations of DMF plus IC50 concentration of monoethylhexyl phthalate (MEHP) (the main metabolite of DEHP). Then, some of the oxidative stress parameters including ROS, MDA, and GSH, and cytotoxicity (MTT assay) were determined in treated cells. For in vivo evaluation, rats were divided into 7 groups (n = 6 per group). Corn oil group (gavage), DEHP group (200 mg/kg dissolved in corn oil, gavage), DMF (15, 30, and 60 mg/kg, gavage) plus DEHP (200 mg/kg) groups, DMF (60 mg/kg, gavage) alone, and vitamin E (20 mg/kg, intraperitoneal (IP)) plus DEHP (200 mg/kg) group. This treatment continued for 45 days. Then, BUN and creatinine were evaluated by a commercial kit based on the urease enzymatic method and the Jaffe method, respectively. Mitochondrial oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction parameters were evaluated using appropriate reagents, and gene expression of the p65 nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) were evaluated by real-time PCR method. High concentrations of DMF significantly increased cell viability, and GSH content and significantly decreased ROS and MDA levels compared with the MEHP group in HEK-293 cells. DMF (60 mg/kg) significantly decreased BUN and creatinine levels compared with the DEHP group. Mitochondrial function and mitochondrial swelling were significantly improved in DMF group (60 mg/kg) compared with the DEHP group. DMF (30 and 60 mg/kg) significantly improved MMP collapse compared with the DEHP group. DMF (30 and 60 mg/kg) significantly decreased ROS levels compared with the DEHP group in isolated kidney mitochondria. DMF (60 mg/kg) significantly decreased MDA levels and significantly increased GSH content compared with DEHP group in isolated kidney mitochondria. The mRNA expression levels of Nrf2 and HO-1 were significantly reduced in the DEHP group compared to the control group and were significantly increased in the DMF group compared to the DEHP group. p65NF-κB and TNFα mRNA expression levels were significantly increased in the DEHP group compared to the control group. However, DMF significantly decreased p65NF-κB and TNFα mRNA expression compared to the DEHP group. DMF can act as a nephroprotective agent against DEHP partly through modulation of oxidative stress, mitochondrial function, and inflammation.

Potential nephroprotective phytochemicals: Mechanism and future prospects

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Kidney disease (KD) is one of the serious health issues, which causes worrisome morbidity and economic burden. Therapeutic strategies are available however majority of them are associated with severe adverse effects and poor patient compliance and adherence. This explorative article was undertaken to provide a holistic review of known nephroprotective (NP) phytoconstituents along with their research-based evidences on mechanism, sources, and clinical trials that may play essential role in prevention and cure of KD.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present systematic review aimed to provide in-depth and better evidences of the global burden of KD, phytoconstituents as NP with emphasis on mechanism of action both in vitro and in vivo, their wide biological sources as well as their clinical efficacy in management of kidney disease and its related disorders.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Comprehensive information was searched systematically from electronic databases, namely, PubMed, Sciencedirect, Wiley, Scopus, Google scholar and Springer until February 2021 to find relevant data for publication on phytoconstituents with nephroprotective potential.

RESULTS

In total, 24,327 articles were screened in first search for "phytoconstituents and medicinal plants for nephroprotection and kidney disorder". On the basis of exclusion and inclusion criteria, 24,091 were excluded. Only 236 papers were spotted to have superlative quality data, which is appropriate under titles and sub-titles of the present review. The phytoconstituents having multiple research evidence along with wide number of medicinal plants sources and mechanism reported for nephroprotection have been selected and reviewed.

CONCLUSION

This review, based on pre-clinical and clinical data of NP phytoconstituents, provides scientific-basis for the rational discovery, development and utilization of these upcoming treatment practices. Further,-more clinical studies are warranted to improve the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic understanding of phytoconstituents. Also, more specific evaluation for natural sources is needed.

A Flavonoid-Rich Extract of Sambucus nigra L. Reduced Lipid Peroxidation in a Rat Experimental Model of Gentamicin Nephrotoxicity

The use of gentamicin (GM) is limited due to its nephrotoxicity mediated by oxidative stress. This study aimed to evaluate the capacity of a flavonoid-rich extract of Sambucus nigra L. elderflower (SN) to inhibit lipoperoxidation in GM-induced nephrotoxicity. The HPLC analysis of the SN extract recorded high contents of rutin (463.2 ± 0.0 mg mL−1), epicatechin (9.0 ± 1.1 µg mL−1), and ferulic (1.5 ± 0.3 µg mL−1) and caffeic acid (3.6 ± 0.1 µg mL−1). Thirty-two Wistar male rats were randomized into four groups: a control group (C) (no treatment), GM group (100 mg kg−1 bw day−1 GM), GM+SN group (100 mg kg−1 bw day−1 GM and 1 mL SN extract day−1), and SN group (1 mL SN extract day−1). Lipid peroxidation, evaluated by malondialdehyde (MDA), and antioxidant enzymes activity—superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPX)—were recorded in renal tissue after ten days of experimental treatment. The MDA level was significantly higher in the GM group compared to the control group (p < 0.0001), and was significantly reduced by SN in the GM+SN group compared to the GM group (p = 0.021). SN extract failed to improve SOD, CAT, and GPX activity in the GM+SN group compared to the GM group (p > 0.05), and its action was most probably due to the ability of flavonoids (rutin, epicatechin) and ferulic and caffeic acids to inhibit synthesis and neutralize reactive species, to reduce the redox-active iron pool, and to inhibit lipid peroxidation. In this study, we propose an innovative method for counteracting GM nephrotoxicity with a high efficiency and low cost, but with the disadvantage of the multifactorial environmental variability of the content of SN extracts.

Fenofibrate Prevents nicotine-induced Acute Kidney Injury: Possible Involvement of Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase

Objective:

The present study investigated the possible effect of fenofibrate (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors-α agonist) in nicotine-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) in rats.

Materials and Methods:

Nicotine (2 mg/kg/day, intraperitoneally) was administered for 4 weeks to induce AKI in rats. Lipid profile and renal oxidative stress were measured and expression of mRNA for eNOS was assessed using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction along with serum and renal tissue nitrite levels. Serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen and microproteinuria were estimated along with the kidney histology, as markers of kidney function. Treatment with fenofibrate (30 mg/kg per oral, 4 weeks) was initiated 3 days before the administration of nicotine and continued for 4 weeks from the day of administration of nicotine.

Results:

Nicotine administered rats developed apparent AKI confirmed by elevated markers of kidney function and noticeable glomerulosclerosis and tubular cell degeneration. Nicotine decreases the expression of mRNA for eNOS, along with serum and renal tissue nitrite levels. In addition, nicotine showed significantly lipid alteration beside decrease oxidative stress, assessed in terms of increase in serum thiobarbituric acid reactive substance and a marked decrease in tissue reduced glutathione. However, fenofibrate significantly prevented the development of nicotine-AKI by reducing serum creatinine, BUN, and urinary protein, normalizing the lipid profile, reducing renal oxidative stress, increases the eNOS expression and concentration of serum and renal nitrate levels.

Conclusion:

Fenofibrate attenuates nicotine-induced AKI, via its antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant property. Moreover, fenofibrate induced upregulation of eNOS expression additionally play key roles in the improvement of nicotine-induced AKI could be the future alternative.

A systematic review on nephron protective AYUSH drugs as constituents of NEERI-KFT (A traditional Indian polyherbal formulation) for the management of chronic kidney disease

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) is a major health problem characterized by kidney dysfunction with progressive segmental glomerulosclerosis to end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Due to lack of scientific data and comprehensive reports, the current systematic review provides an inclusive understanding and prospective associated with phytopharmacology of NEERI-KFT in CKD. The data was collected from more than five databases such as Science Direct, Google Scholar, Elsevier, PubMed, Springer, ACS publication etc using keywords like CKD/Kidney disease, epidemiology/prevalence, modern therapies for CKD management, NEERI-KFT and its role in kidney disease. The study was performed based on scientific reports screened by experts according to inclusion and exclusion criteria. The pre-clinical and clinical findings suggested that NEERI-KFT has promising effects as nephroprotective and considered safe and well effective in primary care of kidney against disease. Phytopharmacological evaluation of NEERI-KFT suggest that it exhibit substantial potential against oxidative and inflammatory stress induced apoptosis by exerting antioxidants, nephroprotective and immunomodulatory effects. Hence, it can be enlighten that NEERI-KFT have potential herbs which exerts significant antioxidants, nephroprotective and immunomodulatory effects in the patients associated with renal dysfunction or CKD thus improving altered renal architecture and renal physiology. Clinically, it is concluded that NEERI-KFT works kidney malfunction and cease ESRD progression or even reduce the number of dialysis.

Catechins: Therapeutic Perspectives in COVID-19-Associated Acute Kidney Injury

Data obtained from several intensive care units around the world have provided substantial evidence of the strong association between impairment of the renal function and in-hospital deaths of critically ill COVID-19 patients, especially those with comorbidities and requiring renal replacement therapy (RRT). Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common renal disorder of various etiologies characterized by a sudden and sustained decrease of renal function. Studies have shown that 5–46% of COVID-19 patients develop AKI during hospital stay, and the mortality of those patients may reach up to 100% depending on various factors, such as organ failures and RRT requirement. Catechins are natural products that have multiple pharmacological activities, including anti-coronavirus and reno-protective activities against kidney injury induced by nephrotoxic agents, obstructive nephropathies and AKI accompanying metabolic and cardiovascular disorders. Therefore, in this review, we discuss the anti-SARS-CoV-2 and reno-protective effects of catechins from a mechanistic perspective. We believe that catechins may serve as promising therapeutics in COVID-19-associated AKI due to their well-recognized anti-SARS-CoV-2, and antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties that mediate their reno-protective activities.

Acacia hydaspica R. Parker ethyl-acetate extract abrogates cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity by targeting ROS and inflammatory cytokines

Cisplatin (CisPT) is a chemotherapeutic drug that outcomes in adverse effects. In this study, we examined the effect of A. hydaspica ethyl acetate extract (AHE) in an animal model of cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury (AKI). 36 male Sprague Dawley rats were used in the AKI rat model, and CisPT (7.5 mg/kg BW, i.p) single dose was given. In the pretreatment module, AHE (400 mg/kgBW/day, p.o) was given for 7 days before and after CisPT injection. While in the post-treatment group AHE was administered for 7 days after a single CisPT shot. The standard group received silymarin (100 mg/kg BW, p.o) for 7 days before and after CisPT injection. In HCT 116 tumor xenografts (n = 32) two groups of mice were pretreated with 400 mg/kg AHE orally for 7 days and two groups were treated with distilled water. On day 7 of pretreatment one distilled water and one AHE pretreated group were injected i.p with 15 mg/kg bw dose followed by another dose of CisPT 2 wk later. AHE groups were additionally treated with 400 mg/kg AHE for 3 days/week for 2 weeks. CisPT significantly deteriorated renal function parameters, i.e., PH, specific gravity, total protein, albumin, urea, creatinine, uric acid, globulin and blood urea nitrogen. CisPT treatment increased oxidative stress markers, while lower renal antioxidant enzymes. AHE pretreatment ameliorates significantly (p < 0.0001) CisPT-induced alterations in serum and urine markers for kidney function. Furthermore, AHE pretreatment more efficiently (p < 0.001) decreases oxidative stress markers, attenuate NF-κB, and IL-6 protein and mRNA expression by augmenting antioxidant enzyme levels compared to post-treatment. The histological observations verified the protective effect of AHE. In tumor xenograft mice, AHE treatment significantly reduced CisPT induced oxidative stress while it did not interfere with the anticancer efficacy of cisplatin as shown by significance (p < 0.001) decrease in tumor size after treatment. A. hydaspica AHE might provide a prospective adjuvant that precludes CisPT-induced nephrotoxicity without compromising its antitumor potential.

Protective effects of natural products against drug-induced nephrotoxicity: A review in recent years

Drug-induced nephrotoxicity (DIN) is a major cause of kidney damage and is associated with high mortality and morbidity, which limits the clinical use of certain therapeutic or diagnostic agents, such as antineoplastic drugs, antibiotics, immunosuppressive agents, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and contrast agents. However, in recent years, a number of studies have shown that many natural products (NPs), including phytochemicals, various plants extracts, herbal formulas, and NPs derived from animals, confer protective effects against DIN through multi-targeting therapeutic mechanisms, such as inhibition of oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, fibrosis, and necroptosis, regulation of autophagy, maintenance of cell polarity, etc., by regulating multiple signaling pathways and novel molecular targets. In this review, we summarize and discuss the protective effects and mechanisms underlying the action of NPs against DIN found in recent years, which will contribute to the development of promising renal protective agents.

The Regulation of Host Intestinal Microbiota by Polyphenols in the Development and Prevention of Chronic Kidney Disease

Polyphenols are essential antioxidants in our regular diet, and have shown potential antibacterial effects. Other important biological effects, such as anticancer or antibacterial activities, have been demonstrated by some polyphenols. In recent years, the benefits of polyphenols to human health have attracted increasing attention from the scientific community. Recent studies have shown that polyphenols such as anthocyanin, catechin, chlorogenic acid, and resveratrol can inhibit pathogenic bacteria such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella to help regulate intestinal microflora. An imbalance of intestinal microflora and the destruction of intestinal barrier function have been found to have a potential relationship with the occurrence of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Specifically, they can aberrantly trigger the immune system to cause inflammation, increase the production of uremic toxins, and further worsen the condition of CKD. Therefore, the maintenance of intestinal microflora and the intestinal tract in a stable and healthy state may be able to "immunize" patients against CKD, and treat pre-existing disease. The use of common antibiotics may lead to drug resistance in pathogens, and thus beneficial polyphenols may be suitable natural substitutes for antibiotics. Herein we review the ability of different polyphenols, such as anthocyanin, catechin, chlorogenic acid, and resveratrol, to regulate intestinal microorganisms, inhibit pathogenic bacteria, and improve inflammation. In addition, we review the ability of different polyphenols to reduce kidney injury, as described in recent studies.

The Screening of Renoprotective Agents by 99mTc-DMSA: A Review of Preclinical Studies

BACKGROUND

Nephrotoxicity is a prevalent consequence of cancer treatment using radiotherapy and chemotherapy or their combination. There are two methods; histological and biochemical, to assess the kidney damage caused by toxic agents in animal studies. Although these methods are used for the try-out of renoprotective factors, these methods are invasive and time-consuming, and also, lack the necessary sensitivity for primary diagnosis. Quantitative renal 99mTc-DMSA scintigraphy is a noninvasive, precise and sensitive radionuclide technique which is used to assess the extent of kidney damage, so that the extent of injury to the kidney will be indicated by the renal uptake rate of 99mTc-DMSA in the kidney. In addition, this scintigraphy evaluates the effect of the toxic agents by quantifying the alterations in the biodistribution of the radiopharmaceutical.

CONCLUSION

In this review, the recent findings about the renoprotective agents were evaluated and screened with respect to the use of 99mTc-DMSA , which is preclinically and clinically used for animal cases and cancer patients under the treatment by radiotherapy and chemotherapy.

Aqueous garlic extract supresses experimental gentamicin induced renal pathophysiology mediated by oxidative stress, inflammation and Kim-1

BACKGROUND

Gentamicin (Gent) has rapid & high bactericidal action in addition to its cheap price. Nevertheless, 30% of gentamicin-treated patients develop nephrotoxicity.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the probable nephroprotective effects of the aqueous garlic extract (AGE) & to elucidate its underlying mechanisms via monitoring proinflammatory cytokines as tumer necrosis factor (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and interferon-γ (INF-γ), oxidative stess markers as malondialdehyde (MDA) & superoxide dismutase (SOD) & kidney injury molecule (Kim-1) as a promising early specific biomarker of renal dysfunction.

METHODS

32 adult male rats were divided into 4 equal groups treated for 21 days as: normal control group received normal saline orally, AGE-treated group received AGE at 250 mg/kg/day orally, Gent-treated group received Gent-sulphate intraperitoneal injection at 80 mg/kg /day, and AGE & Gent cotreated group received AGE and Gent concomitantly in the same previous doses. Serum urea, creatinine, glomerular filteration rate (GFR), systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP), TNF-α, IL-6, INF-γ, MDA and SOD and Kim-1 mRNA expression were evaluated in kidney tissue homogenate. Renal cortex sections stained with Haematoxylin & eosin (H&E) were examined.

RESULTS

AGE is nephroprotective through significantly reducing serum urea, creatinine, SBP and DBP, TNF-α, IL-6, INF-γ and MDA (the main product of lipid peroxidation), decreasing expression of Kim-1 mRNA in renal tissue and increasing level of GFR, the natural antioxidant SOD and improving renal histological features of Gent-treated rats.

CONCLUSION

AGE normalizes Gent-induced renal dysfunction. Their co-administration is a plausible advice, although the therapeutic efficiency of Gent was not investigated.

Evaluating the protective potency of Acacia hydaspica R. Parker on histological and biochemical changes induced by Cisplatin in the cardiac tissue of rats

Background

Increase oxidative trauma is the main cause behind Cisplatin (CP) induced cardiotoxicity which restricts its clinical application as anti-neoplastic prescription. Acacia hydaspica is a natural shrub with diverse bioactivities. Acacia hydaspica ethyl acetate extract (AHE) ameliorated drug-induced cardiotoxicity in animals with anti-oxidative mechanisms. Current study aimed to evaluate the protective potential of A. hydaspica against cisplatin-induced myocardial injury.

Methods

Rats were indiscriminately distributed into six groups (n = 6). Group 1: control; Groups 2: Injected with CP (7.5 mg/kg bw, i.p, single dose) on day 16; Group 3: Treated for 21 days with AHE (400 mg/kg b.w, oral); Group 4: Received CP injection on day 16 and treated with AHE for 5 days post injection; Group 5: Received AHE (400 mg/kg b.w/day, p.o.) for 21 days and CP (7.5 mg/kg b.w., i.p.) on day 16; Group 6: Treated with silymarin (100 mg/kg b.w., p.o.) after 1 day interval for 21 days and CP injection (7.5 mg/kg b.w., i.p.) on day 16. On 22nd day, the animals were sacrificed and their heart tissues were removed. Cisplatin induced cardiac toxicity and the influence of AHE were evaluated by examination of serum cardiac function markers, cardiac tissue antioxidant enzymes, oxidative stress markers and histology.

Results

CP inoculation considerably altered cardiac function biomarkers in serum and diminished the antioxidant enzymes levels, while increased oxidative stress biomarkers in cardiac tissues AHE treatment attenuated CP-induced deteriorations in creatine kinase (CK), Creatine kinase isoenzymes MB (CK-MB), cardiac Troponin I (cTNI) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels and ameliorated cardiac oxidative stress markers as evidenced by decreasing lipid peroxidation, H₂O₂ and NO content along with augmentation in phase I and phase II antioxidant enzymes. Additionally, CP inoculation also induced morphological alterations which were ameliorated by AHE. In pretreatment group more significant protection was observed compared to post-treatment group indicating preventive potential of AHE. The protective potency of AHE was comparable to silymarin.

Conclusion

Results demonstrate that AHE attenuated CP induce cardiotoxicity. The polyphenolic metabolites and antioxidant properties of AHE might be responsible for its protective influence.

Reno-protective effects of ursodeoxycholic acid against gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity through modulation of NF-κB, eNOS and caspase-3 expressions

Gentamicin (GNT) is a potent aminoglycoside antibiotic widely used to treat life-threatening bacterial infections. We aim to investigate the potential protective effect of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) against GNT-induced nephrotoxicity. In this study, 24 male Wistar rats were used and randomly divided into four groups of six animals each. Control group received 0.5% carboxymethyl cellulose orally for 15 days, GNT group received GNT 100 mg/kg/day i.p. for 8 days, UDCA group received UDCA orally for 15 consecutive days at a dose of 60 mg/kg/day suspended in 0.5% carboxymethyl cellulose and UDCA-pretreated group received UDCA orally for 7 days then co-administered with GNT i.p. for 8 days at the same fore-mentioned doses. Serum levels of kidney function parameters (urea, creatinine, uric acid and albumin) were measured. Renal tissues were used to evaluate oxidative stress markers; malonaldehyde (MDA), reduced glutathione (GSH) and the anti-oxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities and nuclear factor kappa light-chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) and kidney injury molecule-1 (KIM-1) mRNA levels. Immunohistochemical expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and caspase-3 and histological and ultrastructural examination were performed. Treatment with GNT increased the serum levels of renal function parameters and renal MDA, NF-κB and KIM-1 mRNA levels, while it decreased GSH and SOD activities. Marked immunohistochemical expression of caspase-3 was observed after GNT administration while it decreased eNOS expression. Histological and ultrastructural alterations were also evident in renal corpuscles and tubules. In contrast, pretreatment with UDCA reversed changes caused by GNT administration. These results suggest that UDCA ameliorates GNT-induced kidney injury via inhibition of oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis.

Nephroprotective and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Pistacia atlantica Leaf Hydroethanolic Extract Against Gentamicin-Induced Nephrotoxicity in Rats

Gentamicin in overdose can lead to tubular injury and kidney dysfunction. Some antioxidants can protect kidneys against nephrotoxicity. This study was undertaken to evaluate the protective effects of Pistacia atlantica (P. atlantica) leaf hydroethanolic extract against gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity in rats. Forty rats were divided into five groups: the first group received a daily intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of normal saline. The second group received gentamicin (120 mg/kg, i.p.). The third, fourth, and fifth groups were orally treated with 200, 400, and 800 mg/kg of P. atlantica leaf hydroethanolic extract, respectively, and they also received gentamicin (120 mg/kg, i.p.). After seven days, serum malondialdehyde (MDA), creatinine (Cr), urea, uric acid, lipids profile, protein carbonyl (PC), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were determined. Also, a piece of kidney was used to determine catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, vitamin C, the gene expression of TNF-α, and for subsequent histopathological studies. Treatment with P. atlantica leaf hydroethanolic extract resulted in a significant increase (p < 0.05) in CAT, SOD, vitamin C, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and significantly decreased (p < 0.05) the levels of Cr, urea, uric acid, MDA, PC, triglyceride, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, very low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, TNF-α protein, and the gene expression of TNF-α compared with the untreated group. Histopathological studies show that in lymphocyte infiltration, remarkable reduction was observed in P. atlantica leaf hydroethanolic extract-treated groups, compared with the untreated group. The present study suggests that P. atlantica leaf hydroethanolic extract has protective effects against gentamicin-induced nephrotoxicity.

Protective effects of green tea and its main constituents against natural and chemical toxins: A comprehensive review

Toxins are natural or chemical poisonous substances with severe side effects on health. Humans are generally exposed by widespread toxic contaminations via air, soil, water, food, fruits and vegetables. Determining a critical antidote agent with extensive effects on different toxins is an ultimate goal for all toxicologists. Traditional medicine is currently perceived as a safe and natural approach against toxins. In this regard, we focused on the protective effects of green tea (Camellia sinensis) and its main components such as catechin, epicatechin, epicatechin gallate, gallocatechin, epigallocatechin and epigallocatechin gallate as a principal source of antioxidants against both natural and chemical toxins. This literate review demonstrates that protective effects of green tea and its constituents were mainly attributed to their anti-oxidative, radical scavenging, chelating, anti-apoptotic properties and modulating inflammatory responses. Although, some studies reveal they have protective effects by increasing toxin metabolism and neutralizing PLA₂, proteases, hyaluronidase and l-amino acid oxidase enzymes.

Recent trends in the development of nanophytobioactive compounds and delivery systems for their possible role in reducing oxidative stress in Parkinson's disease models

Oxidative stress plays a very critical role in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease (PD), which is the second most common neurodegenerative disease among elderly people worldwide. Increasing evidence has suggested that phytobioactive compounds show enhanced benefits in cell and animal models of PD. Curcumin, resveratrol, ginsenosides, quercetin, and catechin are phyto-derived bioactive compounds with important roles in the prevention and treatment of PD. However, in vivo studies suggest that their concentrations are very low to cross blood-brain barrier thereby it limits bioavailability, stability, and dissolution at target sites in the brain. To overcome these problems, nanophytomedicine with the controlled size of 1-100 nm is used to maximize efficiency in the treatment of PD. Nanosizing of phytobioactive compounds enhances the permeability into the brain with maximized efficiency and stability. Several nanodelivery techniques, including solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanoliposomes, and nanoniosomes can be used for controlled delivery of nanobioactive compounds to brain. Nanocompounds, such as ginsenosides (19.9 nm) synthesized using a nanoemulsion technique, showed enhanced bioavailability in the rat brain. Here, we discuss the most recent trends and applications in PD, including 1) the role of phytobioactive compounds in reducing oxidative stress and their bioavailability; 2) the role of nanotechnology in reducing oxidative stress during PD; 3) nanodelivery systems; and 4) various nanophytobioactive compounds and their role in PD.