"Decisions, decisions, decisions": transfer and specificity of decision-making skill between sports

Sprinting to the top: comparing quality of distance variety and specialization between swimmers and runners

Objectives

To compare performance progression and variety in race distances of comparable lengths (timewise) between pool swimming and track running. Quality of within-sport variety was determined as the performance differences between individual athletes' main and secondary race distances across (top-) elite and (highly-) trained swimmers and runners.

Methods

A total of 3,827,947 race times were used to calculate performance points (race times relative to the world record) for freestyle swimmers (n = 12,588 males and n = 7,561 females) and track runners (n = 9,230 males and n = 5,841 females). Athletes were ranked based on their personal best at peak performance age, then annual best times were retrospectively traced throughout adolescence.

Results

Performance of world-class swimmers differentiates at an earlier age from their lower ranked peers (15-16 vs. 17-20 year age categories, P < 0.05), but also plateaus earlier towards senior age compared to runners (19-20 vs. 23 + year age category, P < 0.05), respectively. Performance development of swimmers shows a logarithmic pattern, while runners develop linearly. While swimmers compete in more secondary race distances (larger within-sport variety), runners specialize in either sprint, middle- or long-distance early in their career and compete in only 2, 4 or 3 other race distances, respectively. In both sports, sprinters specialize the most (P < 0.05). Distance-variety of middle-distance swimmers covers more longer rather than sprint race distances. Therefore, at peak performance age, (top-) elite female 200 m swimmers show significantly slower sprint performances, i.e., 50 m (P < 0.001) and 100 m (P < 0.001), but not long-distance performances, i.e., 800 m (P = 0.99) and 1,500 m (P = 0.99). In contrast, (top-) elite female 800 m middle-distance runners show significantly slower performances in all their secondary race distances (P < 0.001). (Top-) elite female athletes specialize more than (highly-) trained athletes in both sports (P < 0.05).

Conclusions

The comparison to track running and lower ranked swimmers, the early performance plateau towards senior age, and the maintenance of a large within-sport distance variety indicates that (top-) elite sprint swimmers benefit from greater within-sport specialization.

Relationship between skill training and skill transfer through the example of bimanual motor learning

Skill training aims to improve the performance of the task at hand and aims to transfer the acquired skill to related tasks. Both skill training and skill transfer are part of our everyday lives, and essential for survival, and their importance is reflected in years of research. Despite these enormous efforts, however, the complex relationship between skill training and skill transfer is not yet portrayed completely. Building upon two theories, we probed this relationship through the example of bimanual learning with a large cross-sectional design (N = 450) using an online framework. We designed five training tasks which differed in the variance of the training material (schema theory) and three transfer tasks differing in their similarity to the training task (identical elements theory). Theoretically, the five training tasks and the three transfer tasks varied approximately linearly from each other. Empirical data, however, suggested merely the presence of three statistically different training tasks and two significantly different transfer tasks, indicating a nonlinear relationship. Against our expectation, Bayesian statistics suggested that the type of skill training was not related to the type of skill transfer. However, the amount of skill training was positively related to the amount of skill transfer. Together, we showed that motor learning studies can be conducted online. Further, our results shed light on the complex relationship between skill training and skill transfer. Understanding this relationship has wide-ranging practical implications for the general population, particularly for musicians, athletes and patients recovering from injury.

Effects of video-based training on anticipation and decision-making in football players: A systematic review

The training of athletes' anticipation and decision-making skills has received increasing attention from researchers, who developed and implemented training programs to achieve this. Video-based training (VBT) has become a popular method in anticipation and decision-making skills training. However, little is known about the benefits of implementing VBT in soccer. This systematic review considered the results of studies on VBT aiming to develop decision-making and anticipation skills in football players, and analyzed its effects. Literature published up to March 2022 was systematically searched on the scientific electronic databases Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, SportDiscus, and Google Scholar. In total, 5,749 articles were identified. After screening the records according to the set exclusion and inclusion criteria, ten articles were considered eligible, including six longitudinal studies and four acute studies. Eight of the ten included studies (80%) showed that VBT group performance in anticipation or decision-making skills was significantly better at post-test than at pre-test, as evidenced by improvements in response accuracy (RA), response times (RT), mean distance scores (MDS) and passing decision-making performance. In six studies that included the no video-based training (NVBT) group, results showed that athletes in the VBT group performed better in anticipation or decision-making skills than in the NVBT group, as evidenced by improvements in RA and RT performance. The studies used different methods for VBT, both explicit and implicit training effectively improved participants' anticipation and decision-making skills. In addition, the implementation of the "first-person" perspective (i.e., the player's perspective) and virtual reality (VR) improved the presentation of video stimuli, effectively improving anticipation and decision-making. The findings of this review suggest that VBT is beneficial in developing anticipation and decision-making judgments in football players. However, some findings were inconsistent with previous studies due to differences in intervention duration and experimental protocols, and further studies are needed. Furthermore, future research should actively seek to design appropriate retention tests and transfer tests to truly understand the benefits of VBT for athletes.

Does anticipation of penalty kicks in soccer transfer across similar and dissimilar sports?

The aim of the present study was to examine whether anticipation skill associated with penalty-kick scenarios is sport-specific, or whether it transfers between sports that have similar elements. A shortened participation history questionnaire was used to identify 97 soccer players, 47 invasion sport players (e.g., rugby), and 72 other sport players (e.g., swimming), as well as skill level (hours of engagement/competition level). These participants completed a video-based temporal occlusion anticipation test that required them to select the destination of the ball across a series of soccer penalty scenarios. Results indicated that the skilled soccer players were more accurate than the skilled and less-skilled invasion sport players and skilled and less-skilled other sport players. Skilled soccer players were also more accurate than the less-skilled soccer players, with less-skilled soccer players exhibiting similar accuracy to both the skilled and less-skilled invasion sport and other sport players indicating that processes associated with anticipation of penalty kicks may be specific to their sport.

What Makes a Champion? Early Multidisciplinary Practice, Not Early Specialization, Predicts World-Class Performance

What explains the acquisition of exceptional human performance? Does a focus on intensive specialized practice facilitate excellence, or is a multidisciplinary practice background better? We investigated this question in sports. Our meta-analysis involved 51 international study reports with 477 effect sizes from 6,096 athletes, including 772 of the world's top performers. Predictor variables included starting age, age of reaching defined performance milestones, and amounts of coach-led practice and youth-led play (e.g., pickup games) in the athlete's respective main sport and in other sports. Analyses revealed that (a) adult world-class athletes engaged in more childhood/adolescent multisport practice, started their main sport later, accumulated less main-sport practice, and initially progressed more slowly than did national-class athletes; (b) higher performing youth athletes started playing their main sport earlier, engaged in more main-sport practice but less other-sports practice, and had faster initial progress than did lower performing youth athletes; and (c) youth-led play in any sport had negligible effects on both youth and adult performance. We illustrate parallels from science: Nobel laureates had multidisciplinary study/working experience and slower early progress than did national-level award winners. The findings suggest that variable, multidisciplinary practice experiences are associated with gradual initial discipline-specific progress but greater sustainability of long-term development of excellence.

Understanding a Player's Decision-Making Process in Team Sports: A Systematic Review of Empirical Evidence

Three perspectives were taken to explain decision-making within team sports (information processing, recognition primed decision-making, and ecological dynamics perspectives), resulting in conceptual tension and practical confusion. The aim of this paper was to interrogate empirical evidence to (1) understand the process of decision-making within team sports and (2) capture the characteristics of decision-making expertise in a team sport context. Nine electronic databases (SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, PsycArticles, PsycTests, PubMed, SAGE journals online, Web of Knowledge, Academic Search Complete, and Web of Science) were searched until the final return in March 2021. Fifty-three articles satisfied the inclusion criteria, were analysed thematically, and synthesised using a narrative approach. Findings indicate that the relative absence or presence of mental representation within the decision-making process depends on factors, including complexity, typicality, time available, and contextual priors available in the game situation. We recommend that future research integrate concepts and methodologies prevalent within each perspective to better understand decision-making within team sports before providing implications for practitioners.

The Impact of Self-Reported Sleep Quantity on Perceived Decision-Making in Sports Officials During a Competitive Season

Objectives: While sleep research in athletes is extensive, no research has investigated sleep in sports officials during a competitive season. This study explored the (a) self-reported quantity and quality of sleep obtained by sports officials according to the time of competition (day or evening) and (b) impact of reduced sleep on perceived decision-making ability. Design: Sports officials (n = 371) from various sporting codes completed an online questionnaire that evaluated self-reported sleep quantity and quality on habitual nights, before competition, and after competition, as well as perceived decision-making constructs. Results: With sleep restriction defined as less than 7 h of sleep, mixed-effects logistic regression revealed that the estimated probability of reporting reduced sleep quantity increased (p< .05) on habitual nights (0.58), before competition (0.48), and after competition (0.56). The estimated probability of reporting poor sleep quality was 0.01-0.04 across all nights. When considering time of competition (day or evening), reduced sleep quantity was experienced after evening competition (odds ratio [OR] = 3.33, p < .05), while poorer sleep quality (p< .05) was experienced following day (OR = 2.1) and evening (OR = 12.46) competition compared to habitual nights. Furthermore, the impact of reduced sleep on perceived decision-making constructs was negative, with the estimated probability of reporting impaired perceived decision-making between 0.13 and 0.21. Conclusion: Overall, sports officials are vulnerable to reduced quantity and quality of sleep before and after competition, with impaired perceived decision-making ability following nights of less than average sleep.

Decision-making skills of high-performance youth soccer players

Objectives

This study aimed to develop a valid video-based diagnostic instrument that assesses decision-making with a sport-specific motor response.

Methods

A total of 86 German youth academy players (16.7 ± 0.9 years) viewed game situations projected on a large video screen and were required to make a decision by dribbling and passing to one of three targets (representing different decision options). The test included 48 clips separated into two categories: build-up (bu) and offensive decisions (off). Criterion-related validity was tested based on age (i.e., U16, U17, and U19), playing status (i.e., minutes played in official matches of the current season) and in a prospective approach relating to future youth national team status (i.e., selected or nonselected). Finally, it was investigated whether decision-making competence was influenced by playing position (i.e., defenders vs. midfielders vs. forwards).

Results

Instrumental reliability demonstrated satisfactory values for SCbu (r = 0.72), and lower for SCoff (r = 0.56). Results showed the diagnostic instrument is suitable for discriminating between playing status (SCbu: Φ = 0.22, p < 0.01; SCoff: Φ = 0.14, p < 0.05) and between younger (U16) and older players (U17 > U16 in SCbu: Φ = 0.24 and SCoff: Φ = 0.39, p < 0.01; U19 > U16 in SCbu: Φ = 0.41 and SCoff: Φ = 0.46, p < 0.01); however, there was no difference between U17 and U19 players. Furthermore, the predictive value of the test indicates that future youth national team players make better decisions with respect to the build-up category (SCbu: Φ = 0.20; p < 0.05), whereas playing position did not significantly influence decision-making competence.

Conclusion

Results indicate the video-based decision-making diagnostic instrument can discriminate decision-making competence within a high-performance youth group. The outcomes associated with national youth team participation demonstrate the predictive value of the diagnostic instrument. This study provides initial evidence to suggest a new video-based diagnostic instrument with a soccer-specific motor response can be used within a talent identification process to assist with assessment of decision-making performance.

Two steps for scoring a point: Creating and converting opportunities in invasion team sports

In invasion team sports, scoring efficiency depends on the ability to create scoring opportunities and to convert them into goals or points. Scoring performance varies across sports and comparisons among them are little. In this paper we compare creation and conversion of scoring opportunities in different team sports and genders. Box-score data from six sports [basketball, handball, water polo, field hockey, football, ice hockey] (328 teams, 5723 games, both genders) were standardized by "per ball possession". We applied Bayesian methods to compute the posterior distributions of shots per possession (SHTpPOS), points per shot (PTSpSHT) and points per possession (PTSpPOS). We evaluated differences for these three variables among sports, between genders and the correlation between every pair of them. Inter-sports evaluation evidenced basketball, handball, ice hockey and water polo are sports with a high probability of creating shots (SHTpPOS-p(robability) > 0.65). Complementary, ice hockey, field hockey and football are sports with a low probability of converting shots (PTSpSHT-0.05 < p < 0.26). Despite the distinct results among sports for creating and converting opportunities, all sports in both genders, converged to a scoring efficiency (PTSpPOS) below 0.5. In the genders' comparison, men are more efficient in creating opportunities than women, except in water polo. For scoring efficiency, differences between men and women are fewer. Results prevent generalization about differences in scoring efficiency between genders. Finally, creation and conversion have low correlation in sports with high shot creation probabilities (basketball and ice hockey). In these sports, scoring is not limited by the number of shots taken but rather by their accuracy. For sports with low shot creation probabilities (soccer and men field hockey), creation and conversion presented higher correlation. Evidences contribute to increase coaches' understanding about scoring tactics' challenges in team sports and design practices accordingly.

Decision-Making in Youth Team-Sports Players: A Systematic Review

The aim of this systematic review conducted in the topic of youth team-sports players was three-fold: (i) Analyze the variations of decision-making processes between low- and high-level youth players; (ii) analyze the variations of decision-making processes between different age groups; and (iii) analyze the effects of decision-making training-based programs on youth players. Following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, this systematic review searched for studies on PubMed, ScienceDirect, Academic Search Complete, SPORTDiscus, and Taylor & Francis Online. The search returned 6215 papers. After screening the records against set criteria, 26 articles were fully reviewed. From the included studies, 9 were focused on comparing the decision-making process between low- and high-level players, 6 compared the decisions made by players from different age categories, and 11 analyzed the effects of decision-making-based training programs on youth players. Comparisons between high- and low-level players suggested that high-level and most talented players present a greater accuracy in the cognitive and executive answers to the game as well as being more adjustable to more complex situations. Considering the comparisons between age groups, a tendency of older players to execute more accurate decisions in the game and to have better tactical knowledge and behavior was observed. Finally, the effects of decision-making training programs suggest a beneficial effect employing practical scenarios (mainly based on small-sided and conditioned games), primarily improving passing decisions and execution. However, the benefits of interventions using videos are not clear.

Do You Transfer Your Skills? From Sports to Health Management in Cancer Patients

Skill transfer is a process where personal cognitive and behavioral abilities are applied to contexts that are different from the one in which they were originally learned. Literature demonstrates that skill transferability is possible: for example, people can apply skills learned in sports to other life-domains (such as school, work, or health management) with the aim to improve individual characteristics and reach personal goals. To do this, several factors, such as positive communication, adequate context, a person-centered perspective, and specific strategies, are necessary. On the basis of this, the aim of this contribution is explore the relationship between sports and health management skills to enhance the coach/athlete as well as the patient/physician relationships. Useful strategies for skill transfer from sports to cancer management are shown.

A Framework for the Testing and Validation of Simulated Environments in Experimentation and Training

New computer technologies, like virtual reality (VR), have created opportunities to study human behavior and train skills in novel ways. VR holds significant promise for maximizing the efficiency and effectiveness of skill learning in a variety of settings (e.g., sport, medicine, safety-critical industries) through immersive learning and augmentation of existing training methods. In many cases the adoption of VR for training has, however, preceded rigorous testing and validation of the simulation tool. In order for VR to be implemented successfully for both training and psychological experimentation it is necessary to first establish whether the simulation captures fundamental features of the real task and environment, and elicits realistic behaviors. Unfortunately evaluation of VR environments too often confuses presentation and function, and relies on superficial visual features that are not the key determinants of successful training outcomes. Therefore evidence-based methods of establishing the fidelity and validity of VR environments are required. To this end, we outline a taxonomy of the subtypes of fidelity and validity, and propose a variety of practical methods for testing and validating VR training simulations. Ultimately, a successful VR environment is one that enables transfer of learning to the real-world. We propose that key elements of psychological, affective and ergonomic fidelity, are the real determinants of successful transfer. By adopting an evidence-based approach to VR simulation design and testing it is possible to develop valid environments that allow the potential of VR training to be maximized.

Waste Reduction Strategies: Factors Affecting Talent Wastage and the Efficacy of Talent Selection in Sport

Coaches are faced with the difficult task of identifying and selecting athletes to their team. Despite its widespread practice in sport, there is still much to learn about improving the identification and selection process. Evidence to date suggests selection decisions (at different competitive levels) can be inaccurate, bias driven, and sometimes even illogical. These mistakes are believed to contribute to “talent wastage,” the effect of a coach’s wrongful selection and/or deselection of an athlete to/from a team. Errors of this scale can lead to negative repercussions for all stakeholders involved and therefore deserve further exploration. It is the purpose of this paper to shed light on the potential factors influencing talent wastage and to illuminate possible psychological pitfalls when making decisions under uncertainty.

The modulation of event-related alpha rhythm during the time course of anticipation

Anticipation is the ability to accurately predict future actions or events ahead of the act itself. When attempting to anticipate, researchers have identified that at least two broad sources of information are used: contextual information relating to the situation in question; and biological motion from postural cues. However, the neural correlates associated with the processing of these different sources of information across groups varying in expertise has yet to be examined empirically. We compared anticipation performance and electrophysiological activity in groups of expert (n = 12) and novice (n = 15) performers using a video-based task. Participants made anticipation judgements after being presented information under three conditions: contextual information only; kinematic information only; and both sources of information combined. The experts responded more accurately across all three conditions. Stronger alpha event-related desynchronization over occipital and frontocentral sites occurred in experts compared to the novices when anticipating. The experts relied on stronger preparatory attentional mechanisms when they processed contextual information. When kinematic information was available, the domain specific motor representations built up over many years of practice likely underpinned expertise. Our findings have implications for those interested in identifying and subsequently, enhancing the neural mechanisms involved in anticipation.

Psychological talent predictors in youth soccer: A systematic review of the prognostic relevance of psychomotor, perceptual-cognitive and personality-related factors

Within the multidimensional nature of soccer talent, recently there has been an increasing interest in psychological characteristics. The aim of this present research was to systematically review the predictive value of psychological talent predictors and provide better comprehension of the researchers’ methodological approaches and the empirical evidence for individual factors (i.e., psychomotor, perceptual-cognitive and personality-related). Results highlighted heterogeneous study designs (e.g., participants, measurement methods, statistical analyses) which may limit the comparability of studies’ findings. Analyzing the number of included studies, psychomotor (n = 10) and personality-related factors (n = 8) received more consideration within the literature than perceptual-cognitive factors (n = 4). In regard to empirical evidence, dribbling (0.47 ≤ d ≤ 1.24), ball control (0.57 ≤ d ≤ 1.28) and decision-making (d = 0.81) demonstrated good predictive values as well as the achievement motives hope for success (0.27 ≤ d ≤ 0.74) and fear of failure (0.21 ≤ d ≤ 0.30). In conclusion, there is growing acceptance of the need for more complex statistical analyses to predict future superior performance based on measures of current talent. New research addresses the necessity for large-scale studies that employ multidisciplinary test batteries to assess youth athletes at different age groups prospectively.

Coach ratings of skills and their relations to practice, play and successful transitions from youth-elite to adult-professional status in soccer

Elite soccer players (~15 yr) from professional academies in the UK were rated on technical, tactical, physical and creative skills by coaches at time 1 (T1). Players estimated accumulated hours in soccer practice (coach-led activities) and play (self-led activities) during childhood. Coach-ratings were again collected 2.5 yr later (T2) for players that received a professional contract (~17 yr). Adult-professional status was determined at T3 (~ 20 yr). Skill ratings distinguished across the three "future" groups (academy-only, youth-professional only and adult-professional), for all but creative skill. For players that transitioned to youth-professional, medium sized correlations were noted between childhood practice amounts and technical and creative skill ratings at T1, although practice amounts correlated more strongly with skill ratings at T2. Play amounts were not related to any skills. Within groups of youth elite athletes, domain-specific play in childhood, and to a lesser degree practice, were generally not good discriminators of specific-skills. The effects of sport-specific practice on the development (and discriminability) of skills takes time to emerge. We consider the implications for talent development models and purported links between play and creativity.

Transferring an Analytical Technique from Ecology to the Sport Sciences

BACKGROUND

Learning transfer is defined as an individual's capability to apply prior learnt perceptual, motor, or conceptual skills to a novel task or performance environment. In the sport sciences, learning transfers have been investigated from an athlete-specific perspective. However, sport scientists should also consider the benefits of cross-disciplinary learning to aid critical thinking and metacognitive skill gained through the interaction with similar quantitative scientific disciplines.

OBJECTIVE

Using team sports performance analysis as an example, this study aimed to demonstrate the utility of a common analytical technique in ecology in the sports sciences, namely, nonmetric multidimensional scaling.

METHODS

To achieve this aim, three novel research examples using this technique are presented, each of which enables the analysis and visualization of athlete (organism), team (aggregation of organisms), and competition (ecosystem) behaviors.

RESULTS

The first example reveals the technical behaviors of Australian Football League Brownlow medalists from the 2001 to 2016 seasons. The second example delineates dissimilarity in higher and lower ranked National Rugby League teams within the 2016 season. Lastly, the third example shows the evolution of game play in the basketball tournaments between the 2004 and 2016 Olympic Games.

CONCLUSIONS

In addition to the novel findings of each example, the collective results demonstrate that, by embracing cross-disciplinary learning and drawing upon an analytical technique common to ecology, novel solutions to pertinent research questions within sports performance analysis could be addressed in a practically meaningful way. Cross-disciplinary learning may subsequently assist sport scientists in the analysis and visualization of multivariate datasets.

Physical activity profile of 2014 FIFA World Cup players, with regard to different ranges of air temperature and relative humidity

The present study attempts to assess changes in soccer players' physical activity profiles under the simultaneous influence of the different combinations of ambient temperature and relative humidity characterising matches of the 2014 FIFA World Cup hosted by Brazil. The study material consisted of observations of 340 players representing 32 national teams taking part in the tournament. The measured indices included total distances covered; distances covered with low, moderate, or high intensity; numbers of sprints performed, and peak running speeds achieved. The analysis was carried out using FIFA official match data from the Castrol Performance Index system. Ultimately, consideration was given to a combination of three air temperature ranges, i.e. below 22 °C, 22-28 °C, and above 28 °C; and two relative humidity ranges below 60 % and above 60 %. The greatest average distance recorded (10.54 ± 0.91 km) covered by players at an air temperature below 22 °C and a relative humidity below 60 %, while the shortest (9.83 ± 1.08 km) characterised the same air temperature range, but conditions of relative humidity above 60 % (p ≤ 0.001). Two-way ANOVA revealed significant differences (p ≤ 0.001) in numbers of sprints performed by players, depending on whether the air temperature range was below 22 °C (40.48 ± 11.17) or above 28 °C (30.72 ± 9.40), but only where the relative humidity was at the same time below 60 %. Results presented indicate that the conditions most comfortable for physical activity on the part of players occur at 22 °C, and with relative humidity under 60 %.

Expertise differences in anticipatory judgements during a temporally and spatially occluded task

There is contradictory evidence surrounding the role of critical cues in the successful anticipation of penalty kicks in soccer. In the current study, skilled and less-skilled soccer goalkeepers were required to anticipate when viewing penalty kicks that were both spatially (full body; hip region) and temporally (–160 ms, –80 ms before, foot–ball contact) occluded. The skilled group outperformed the less-skilled group in all conditions. Participants performed better in the full body condition when compared to hip region condition. Performance in the hip only condition was significantly better than chance for the skilled group across all occlusion conditions. However, the less-skilled group were no better than chance in the hip condition for the early occlusion points when predicting direction and height. Later temporal occlusion conditions were associated with increased performance both in the correct response and correct direction analyses, but not for correct height. These data suggest that postural information solely from the hip region may be used by skilled goalkeepers to make accurate predictions of penalty kick direction, however, information from other sources are needed in order to make predictions of height. Findings demonstrate how the importance of anticipation cues evolve over time, which has implications for the design of training programs to enhance perceptual-cognitive skill.

Do previous sports experiences influence the effect of an enrichment programme in basketball skills?

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of an enrichment programme in motor, technical and tactical basketball skills, when accounting for the age of youth sport specialisation. Seventy-six college students (age: M = 20.4, SD = 1.9) were allocated according to three different paths: (i) non-structured (n = 14), (ii) early specialisation (n = 34), and (iii) late specialisation (n = 28), according to information previously provided by the participants about the quantity and type of sporting activities performed throughout their sporting careers. Then, the participants of each path were randomly distributed across control and experimental groups. Variables under study included agility, technical skills circuit, as well as tactical actions performed in a 4-on-4 full-court basketball game. The results indicated improvements in the early and late specialisation paths namely in the experimental training groups. However, the late specialisation path revealed larger benefits, in contrast with the non-structured path, which showed less sensitivity to the enrichment programme, mostly sustained in physical literacy and differential learning. Higher improvements were observed in agility, and also in reducing the number of unsuccessful actions performed during the game. Overall, this study provided evidence of how early sports experiences affect basketball skill acquisition and contribute to adapt to new contexts with motor and technical-tactical challenges. In addition, a path supported by late specialisation might present several advantages in sport performance achievement.

Psychometric Properties of the Spanish Adaptation of the Tactical Skills Inventory for Sports in the School Context

Tactical skills in sport are the basis for current models of invasion team sports instruction, and relate to other psychological variables that exert a mediating influence on people's normal physical activity. This study aimed to validate the Spanish adaptation of the Tactical Skills Inventory for Sports by Elferink-Gemser, Visscher, Richart, and Lemmink (2004) and verify its factorial invariance. The sample included 540 participants 12.89 ± 1.73 years of age (10 to 17 years old; 333 males and 207 females). The adaptation and translation of the original questionnaire followed the methodological steps established by the International Test Commission. Then two measurement models with the original questionnaire's four-factor structure were compared. Confirmatory analyses were conducted using the software AMOS 21 and maximum likelihood estimation. Results indicated a four-factor structure (positioning and deciding, knowing about ball actions, knowing about others, acting in changing situations) was viable and showed goodness of fit to the data, with adequate indices of reliability (α between .72 and .86) and validity (GFI = .955; RMSEA = .044; CFI = .974), and strong evidence of stability in the factor structure. Moreover, factorial invariance was observed between participants who do and do not practice team sports, with practitioners scoring higher than non-practitioners on all factors (p < .001; effect sizes between .97 and 1.08).

Physical and psychomotor performance of Australian football and rugby league officials during a match simulation

The onset of exercise facilitates an improvement in psychomotor performance until the second ventilatory threshold, after which performance is reduced. This inverted-U relationship appears valid for incremental and steady-state exercise, however, not for intermittent exercise. This study examined changes in psychomotor performance of team sport officials during a laboratory-based match simulation. Twelve elite Australian football (n = 5) and rugby league (n = 7) officials (32.5 ± 5.5 years; 180.0 ± 6.8 cm; 78.8 ± 7.6 kg) completed the match simulation on a non-motorised treadmill. Physiological measures were routinely taken, while psychomotor performance was assessed using the Eriksen flanker task (multiple-choice response time). Significant reductions (P < 0.05) were observed in distance covered and high-speed running during the second half when compared to the first. No significant differences (P > 0.05) in psychomotor performance at different time points were observed. Response time was significantly improved when running above 65% of maximal sprinting speed (P < 0.01). This data questions the application of the inverted-U hypothesis for intermittent exercise and suggests that the short high-intensity efforts may not result in the same physiological events that limit psychomotor performance during sustained high-intensity exercise. More so, the high-intensity efforts during the match protocol appeared to promote psychomotor performance during the intermittent exercise.

Effects of short-term experience on anticipatory eye movements during action observation

Recent studies have shown that anticipatory eye movements occur during both action observation and action execution. These findings strongly support the direct matching hypothesis, which states that in observing others' actions, people take advantage of the same action knowledge that enables them to perform the same actions. Furthermore, a connection between action experience and the ability to anticipate action goals has been proposed. Concerning the role of experience, most studies concentrated on motor experts such as athletes and musicians, whereas only few studies investigated whether motor programs can be activated by short-term experience. Applying a pre-post design, we examined whether short-term experience affects anticipatory eye movements during observation. Participants (N = 150 university students) observed scenes showing an actor performing a block stacking task. Subsequently, participants performed either a block stacking task, puzzles, or a pursuit rotor task. Afterward, participants were again provided with the aforementioned block stacking task scenes. Results revealed that the block stacking task group directed their gaze significantly earlier toward the action goals of the block stacking task during posttest trials, compared with Puzzle and pursuit rotor task groups, which did not differ from each other. In accordance with the direct matching hypothesis, our study provides evidence that short-term experience with the block stacking task activates task-specific action knowledge.