A Review of Zoonotic Infection Risks Associated with the Wild Meat Trade in Malaysia

Zoonotic pathogens in wild Asian primates: a systematic review highlighting research gaps

Introduction

Ongoing global changes, including natural land conversion for agriculture and urbanization, modify the dynamics of human-primate contacts, resulting in increased zoonotic risks. Although Asia shelters high primate diversity and experiences rapid expansion of human-primate contact zones, there remains little documentation regarding zoonotic surveillance in the primates of this region.

Methods

Using the PRISMA guidelines, we conducted a systematic review to compile an inventory of zoonotic pathogens detected in wild Asian primates, while highlighting the coverage of primate species, countries, and pathogen groups surveyed, as well as the diagnostic methods used across the studies. Moreover, we compared the species richness of pathogens harbored by primates across diverse types of habitats classified according to their degree of anthropization (i.e., urban vs. rural vs. forest habitats).

Results and discussion

Searches of Scopus, PubMed, and the Global Mammal Parasite Database yielded 152 articles on 39 primate species. We inventoried 183 pathogens, including 63 helminthic gastrointestinal parasites, two blood-borne parasites, 42 protozoa, 45 viruses, 30 bacteria, and one fungus. Considering each study as a sample, species accumulation curves revealed no significant differences in specific richness between habitat types for any of the pathogen groups analyzed. This is likely due to the insufficient sampling effort (i.e., a limited number of studies), which prevents drawing conclusive findings. This systematic review identified several publication biases, particularly the uneven representation of host species and pathogen groups studied, as well as a lack of use of generic diagnostic methods. Addressing these gaps necessitates a multidisciplinary strategy framed in a One Health approach, which may facilitate a broader inventory of pathogens and ultimately limit the risk of cross-species transmission at the human-primate interface. Strengthening the zoonotic surveillance in primates of this region could be realized notably through the application of more comprehensive diagnostic techniques such as broad-spectrum analyses without a priori selection.

Avoiding novel, unwanted interactions among species to decrease risk of zoonoses

Circumstances that precipitate interactions among species that have never interacted during their evolutionary histories create ideal conditions for the generation of zoonoses. Zoonotic diseases have caused some of the most devastating epidemics in human history. Contact among species that come from different ecosystems or regions creates the risk of zoonoses. In certain situations, humans are generating and promoting conditions that contribute to the creation of infectious diseases and zoonoses. These conditions lead to interactions between wildlife species that have hitherto not interacted under normal circumstances. I call for recognition of the zoonotic potential that novel and unwanted interactions have; identification of these new interactions that are occurring among wild animals, domestic animals, and humans; and efforts to stop these kinds of interactions because they can give rise to zoonotic outbreaks. Live animal markets, the exotic pet trade, illegal wildlife trade, human use and consumption of wild animals, invasive non-native species, releasing of exotic pets, and human encroachment in natural areas are among the activities that cause the most interactions among wild species, domestic species, and humans. These activities should not occur and must be controlled efficiently to prevent future epidemic zoonoses. Society must develop a keen ability to identify these unnatural interactions and prevent them. Controlling these interactions and efficiently addressing their causal factors will benefit human health and, in some cases, lead to positive environmental, ethical, and socioeconomic outcomes. Until these actions are taken, humanity will face future zoonoses and zoonotic pandemic.

Mitigating Wildlife Spillover in the Clinical Setting: How Physicians and Veterinarians Can Help Prevent Future Disease Outbreaks

Introduction

The transmission of pathogens from wildlife to humans is a major global health threat that has been highlighted by the proposed origins of the COVID-19 pandemic. Numerous barriers impede pathogen spillover events from ensuing widespread human transmission, but human activity has accelerated the frequency of spillovers and subsequent disease outbreaks, in part through a booming wildlife trade whose impacts on health are not well understood.

Methods

A literature review was conducted to examine the risk that the wildlife trade poses to public health and the degree to which these risks are recognized and addressed in clinical practice and medical and veterinary education.

Results

The illicit aspects of the wildlife trade challenge efforts to understand its impacts on health. The U.S. and Europe play a leading role in the global wildlife trade that often goes unacknowledged. In particular, the consumption of wild meat and ownership of exotic pets poses public health risks. The potential role of clinicians is underutilized, both in the clinical setting and in clinical education.

Discussion

Physicians and veterinarians have the unique opportunity to utilize their clinical roles to address these knowledge gaps and mitigate future outbreaks. We outline a multifaceted approach that includes increasing clinical knowledge about the ecology of zoonotic diseases, leveraging opportunities for mitigation during patient/client-clinician interactions, and incorporating One Health core competencies into medical and veterinary school curricula.

An immediate way to lower pandemic risk: (not) seizing the low-hanging fruit (bat)

What is the least that humanity can do to mitigate the risks of future pandemics, to prevent worldwide surges in human deaths, illness, and suffering-and more waves of multitrillion US dollar impacts on the global economy? The issues around our consumption and trading of wildlife are diverse and complex, with many rural communities being dependent on wild meat for their nutritional needs. But bats might be one taxonomic group that can be successfully eliminated from the human diet and other uses, with minimal costs or inconvenience to the vast majority of the 8 billion people on Earth. The order Chiroptera merits genuine respect given all that these species contribute to human food supplies through pollination services provided by the frugivores and to disease risk mitigation delivered by insectivorous species. The global community missed its chance to stop SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 from emerging-how many more times will humanity allow this cycle to repeat? How long will governments ignore the science that is in front of them? It's past time for humans to do the least that can be done. A global taboo is needed whereby humanity agrees to leave bats alone, not fear them or try to chase them away or cull them, but to let them have the habitats they need and live undisturbed by humans.

Risk of Viral Infectious Diseases from Live Bats, Primates, Rodents and Carnivores for Sale in Indonesian Wildlife Markets

Southeast Asia is considered a global hotspot of emerging zoonotic diseases. There, wildlife is commonly traded under poor sanitary conditions in open markets; these markets have been considered 'the perfect storm' for zoonotic disease transmission. We assessed the potential of wildlife trade in spreading viral diseases by quantifying the number of wild animals of four mammalian orders (Rodentia, Chiroptera, Carnivora and Primates) on sale in 14 Indonesian wildlife markets and identifying zoonotic viruses potentially hosted by these animals. We constructed a network analysis to visualize the animals that are traded alongside each other that may carry similar viruses. We recorded 6725 wild animals of at least 15 species on sale. Cities and markets with larger human population and number of stalls, respectively, offered more individuals for sale. Eight out of 15 animal taxa recorded are hosts of 17 zoonotic virus species, nine of which can infect more than one species as a host. The network analysis showed that long-tailed macaque has the greatest potential for spreading viral diseases, since it is simultaneously the most traded species, sold in 13/14 markets, and a potential host for nine viruses. It is traded alongside pig-tailed macaques in three markets, with which it shares six viruses in common (Cowpox, Dengue, Hepatitis E, Herpes B, Simian foamy, and Simian retrovirus type D). Short-nosed fruit bats and large flying foxes are potential hosts of Nipah virus and are also sold in large quantities in 10/14 markets. This study highlights the need for better surveillance and sanitary conditions to avoid the negative health impacts of unregulated wildlife markets.

The one health perspective to improve environmental surveillance of zoonotic viruses: lessons from COVID-19 and outlook beyond

The human population has doubled in the last 50 years from about 3.7 billion to approximately 7.8 billion. With this rapid expansion, more people live in close contact with wildlife, livestock, and pets, which in turn creates increasing opportunities for zoonotic diseases to pass between animals and people. At present an estimated 75% of all emerging virus-associated infectious diseases possess a zoonotic origin, and outbreaks of Zika, Ebola and COVID-19 in the past decade showed their huge disruptive potential on the global economy. Here, we describe how One Health inspired environmental surveillance campaigns have emerged as the preferred tools to monitor human-adjacent environments for known and yet to be discovered infectious diseases, and how they can complement classical clinical diagnostics. We highlight the importance of environmental factors concerning interactions between animals, pathogens and/or humans that drive the emergence of zoonoses, and the methodologies currently proposed to monitor them-the surveillance of wastewater, for example, was identified as one of the main tools to assess the spread of SARS-CoV-2 by public health professionals and policy makers during the COVID-19 pandemic. One-Health driven approaches that facilitate surveillance, thus harbour the potential of preparing humanity for future pandemics caused by aetiological agents with environmental reservoirs. Via the example of COVID-19 and other viral diseases, we propose that wastewater surveillance is a useful complement to clinical diagnosis as it is centralized, robust, cost-effective, and relatively easy to implement.

Characterization of trichuris species from porcupine (Hystrix cristata) at zoological garden of Spain

Population of Trichuris sp. isolated from Hystrix cristata was analyzed based on morphological, biometrical characteristics and mitochondrial (cox1, cob, rrnL) and ribosomal (ITS1) (rDNA) region sequences. Morphological and biometrical results revealed that Trichuris sp. from H. cristata present a high similarity with Trichuris landak from Hystrix javanica and less similarity with other Trichuris species from porcupine species (Trichuris hystricis, Trichuris lenkorani and Trichuris mettami). The lack of molecular data corresponding to Trichuris species that parasitize the porcupine (genus Hystrix and Atelerix) has not allowed a comparative molecular or phylogenetic study. Molecular analyses revealed the existence of two different haplotypes that did not correspond to different morphospecies. Relationships among Trichuris sp. from H. cristata and other Trichuris spp. have been resolved by molecular sequence data in this study. Thus, the combined analysis of one ribosomal and three mitochondrial markers revealed a sister relationship between whipworms parasitizing porcupine and other Trichuris spp. from rodents and canids and separated from the rest of Trichuris spp. from other hosts species. It is necessary accurate information on the possible zoonotic behavior of different Trichuris species for health workers to improve existing control measures. Thus, it is necessary to increase the studies of integrative taxonomy on Trichuris spp. based on morphological, biometrical and molecular data, which will inevitably contribute to our knowledge on the etiology of trichuriasis.

Live animal markets: Identifying the origins of emerging infectious diseases

Emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) of zoonotic origin appear, affect a population and can spread rapidly. At the beginning of 2020, the World Health Organization pronounced an emergency public health advisory because of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus outbreak, and declared that COVID-19 had reached the level of a pandemic, rapidly spreading around the world. In order to identify one of the origins of EIDs, and propose some control alternatives, an extensive review was conducted of the available literature. The problem can originate in live animal markets, where animal species of all kinds, from different origins, ecosystems, and taxonomic groups are caged and crowded together, sharing the same unsanitary and unnatural space, food, water, and also the ecto- and endoparasitic vectors of disease. They defecate on each other, leading to the exchange of pathogenic and parasitic microorganisms, forcing interactions among species that should never happen. This is the ideal scenario for causing zoonoses and outbreaks of EIDs. We must start by stopping the illegal collection and sale of wild animals in markets. The destruction of ecosystems and forests also promote zoonoses and outbreaks of EIDs. Science and knowledge should be the basis of the decisions and policies for the development of management strategies. Wildlife belongs in its natural habitat, which must be defended, conserved, and restored at all costs.

Local hunting practices and perceptions regarding the distribution and ecological role of the Large Flying Fox (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae: Pteropus vampyrus) in western Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo

Pteropodids such as flying foxes are declining rapidly across their range due to human activities, despite their benefit to humans through ecosystem services. The Large Flying Fox Pteropus vampyrus had a wide distribution across Borneo, but is now severely reduced in numbers, and rarely sighted. In order to develop effective conservation and management prescriptions for this species, updated information on its distribution, movement patterns, and the impact of anthropogenic pressure on its survival is crucial. As such, a questionnaire survey was conducted in western Sarawak to determine the occurrence of this species, and the conservation awareness for the species amongst local communities. The survey was conducted at nine sites during November 2018 – March 2019, involving a total of 123 respondents, including hunters (20%) and consumers (35%) of P. vampyrus. Respondents reported that P. vampyrus appears sporadically around the western tip of Borneo, and around the interior parts of western Sarawak, with more than half (51%) of the reported sightings in the interior occurring at fruit orchards during the fruiting and flowering seasons. Despite hunting and consuming this species, over 60% of the respondents felt that P. vampyrus could become an eco-tourism product in their area. Although many respondents viewed flying foxes as pests (47%) or food (52%), there was remarkably high awareness of the ecological roles and conservation needs of this species (76%), suggesting potentially strong support for flying fox conservation at the local level. Challenges associated with the enforcement of wildlife law in the remote parts of Sarawak need to be addressed, alongside strategic education and awareness efforts, which are all vital to achieve successful conservation and protection of this ecologically important species.

Human-mediated impacts on biodiversity and the consequences for zoonotic disease spillover

Human-mediated changes to natural ecosystems have consequences for both ecosystem and human health. Historically, efforts to preserve or restore 'biodiversity' can seem to be in opposition to human interests. However, the integration of biodiversity conservation and public health has gained significant traction in recent years, and new efforts to identify solutions that benefit both environmental and human health are ongoing. At the forefront of these efforts is an attempt to clarify ways in which biodiversity conservation can help reduce the risk of zoonotic spillover of pathogens from wild animals, sparking epidemics and pandemics in humans and livestock. However, our understanding of the mechanisms by which biodiversity change influences the spillover process is incomplete, limiting the application of integrated strategies aimed at achieving positive outcomes for both conservation and disease management. Here, we review the literature, considering a broad scope of biodiversity dimensions, to identify cases where zoonotic pathogen spillover is mechanistically linked to changes in biodiversity. By reframing the discussion around biodiversity and disease using mechanistic evidence - while encompassing multiple aspects of biodiversity including functional diversity, landscape diversity, phenological diversity, and interaction diversity - we work toward general principles that can guide future research and more effectively integrate the related goals of biodiversity conservation and spillover prevention. We conclude by summarizing how these principles could be used to integrate the goal of spillover prevention into ongoing biodiversity conservation initiatives.

Influence of Anthropic Environmental-Related Factors on Erysipelas in Wild Boar

Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae (ER) is an old but still emerging zoonotic infection that is not yet completely understood. ER infects a wide range of species and wild boar is of significant interest because of their similarities to pigs, a known ER reservoir. Moreover, the increase of its densities and the limited data available about ER in this species should be considered. The need is to investigate whether wild boar could represent a risk of erysipelas at the wildlife-domestic-human interface. Here, 1067 sera and 149 tonsils of wild boar from five hunting districts in Northwest Italy were tested using ELISA and bacteriological culture, respectively. Using generalized linear models, we evaluated host and environmental factors influencing ER spread and dynamics. We found an ER seroprevalence of 69.4% among wild boar. Increased human density and pig farm density lead to an increase of ER seropositivity highlighting its association with anthropic environmental-related factors. The high ER percentage of isolation (34.2%) found in healthy wild boar suggests that this species can serve as a healthy carrier. This fact, together with the high seroprevalence, supports a role of wild boar as an ER reservoir. Potential zoonotic and economic risks should be considered in light of these data.

Mammals, wildlife trade, and the next global pandemic

Most new infectious diseases emerge when pathogens transfer from animals to humans.^1,2 The suspected origin of the COVID pandemic in a wildlife wet market has resurfaced debates on the role of wildlife trade as a potential source of emerging zoonotic diseases.^3-5 Yet there are no studies quantitatively assessing zoonotic disease risk associated with wildlife trade. Combining data on mammal species hosting zoonotic viruses and mammals known to be in current and future wildlife trade,⁶ we found that one-quarter (26.5%) of the mammals in wildlife trade harbor 75% of known zoonotic viruses, a level much higher than domesticated and non-traded mammals. The traded mammals also harbor distinct compositions of zoonotic viruses and different host reservoirs from non-traded and domesticated mammals. Furthermore, we highlight that primates, ungulates, carnivores, and bats represent significant zoonotic disease risks as they host 132 (58%) of 226 known zoonotic viruses in present wildlife trade, whereas species of bats, rodents, and marsupials represent significant zoonotic disease risks in future wildlife trade. Thus, the risk of carrying zoonotic diseases is not equal for all mammal species in wildlife trade. Overall, our findings strengthen the evidence that wildlife trade and zoonotic disease risks are strongly associated, and that mitigation measures should prioritize species with the highest risk of carrying zoonotic viruses. Curbing the sales of wildlife products and developing principles that support the sustainable and healthy trade of wildlife could be cost-effective investments given the potential risk and consequences of zoonotic outbreaks.

Implications of Zoonoses From Hunting and Use of Wildlife in North American Arctic and Boreal Biomes: Pandemic Potential, Monitoring, and Mitigation

The COVID-19 pandemic has re-focused attention on mechanisms that lead to zoonotic disease spillover and spread. Commercial wildlife trade, and associated markets, are recognized mechanisms for zoonotic disease emergence, resulting in a growing global conversation around reducing human disease risks from spillover associated with hunting, trade, and consumption of wild animals. These discussions are especially relevant to people who rely on harvesting wildlife to meet nutritional, and cultural needs, including those in Arctic and boreal regions. Global policies around wildlife use and trade can impact food sovereignty and security, especially of Indigenous Peoples. We reviewed known zoonotic pathogens and current risks of transmission from wildlife (including fish) to humans in North American Arctic and boreal biomes, and evaluated the epidemic and pandemic potential of these zoonoses. We discuss future concerns, and consider monitoring and mitigation measures in these changing socio-ecological systems. While multiple zoonotic pathogens circulate in these systems, risks to humans are mostly limited to individual illness or local community outbreaks. These regions are relatively remote, subject to very cold temperatures, have relatively low wildlife, domestic animal, and pathogen diversity, and in many cases low density, including of humans. Hence, favorable conditions for emergence of novel diseases or major amplification of a spillover event are currently not present. The greatest risk to northern communities from pathogens of pandemic potential is via introduction with humans visiting from other areas. However, Arctic and boreal ecosystems are undergoing rapid changes through climate warming, habitat encroachment, and development; all of which can change host and pathogen relationships, thereby affecting the probability of the emergence of new (and re-emergence of old) zoonoses. Indigenous leadership and engagement in disease monitoring, prevention and response, is vital from the outset, and would increase the success of such efforts, as well as ensure the protection of Indigenous rights as outlined in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Partnering with northern communities and including Indigenous Knowledge Systems would improve the timeliness, and likelihood, of detecting emerging zoonotic risks, and contextualize risk assessments to the unique human-wildlife relationships present in northern biomes.

Mammary microbial dysbiosis leads to the zoonosis of bovine mastitis: a One-Health perspective

Bovine mastitis is a prototypic emerging and reemerging bacterial disease that results in cut-by-cut torture to animals, public health and the global economy. Pathogenic microbes causing mastitis have overcome a series of hierarchical barriers resulting in the zoonotic transmission from bovines to humans either by proximity or remotely through milk and meat. The disease control is challenging and has been attributed to faulty surveillance systems to monitor their emergence at the human-animal interface. The complex interaction between the pathogens, the hidden pathobionts and commensals of the bovine mammary gland that create a menace during mastitis remains unexplored. Here, we review the zoonotic potential of these pathogens with a primary focus on understanding the interplay between the host immunity, mammary ecology and the shift from symbiosis to dysbiosis. We also address the pros and cons of the current management strategies and the extent of the success in implementing the One-Health approach to keep these pathogens at bay.

Prevalence of meat-transmitted Taenia and Trichinella parasites in the Far East countries

Taenia and Trichinella parasites are globally distributed foodborne zoonotic pathogens transmitted from animal to humans via consumption of raw or undercooked meats. This short review is intended to provide the parasites community a snapshot of the literature on the current and recent prevalence of taeniasis and trichinellosis in humans and animals in the Far East countries. Prevalence rates in these countries are highly diverse due to differences in development, culture, ethnic and religious background, animal forming practices, and eating habits. Taenia and Trichinella remain as important meat-transmitted pathogens in the Far East. A One Health approach is needed to eliminate or continuously reduce the foodborne zoonotic taeniasis and trichinellosis in the Far East.

Occupational exposure and challenges in tackling M. bovis at human-animal interface: a narrative review

Zoonotic tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium bovis (M. bovis), a member of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) has increasingly gathered attention as a public health risk, particularly in developing countries with higher disease prevalence. M. bovis is capable of infecting multiple hosts encompassing a number of domestic animals, in particular cattle as well as a broad range of wildlife reservoirs. Humans are the incidental hosts of M. bovis whereby its transmission to humans is primarily through the consumption of cattle products such as unpasteurized milk or raw meat products that have been contaminated with M. bovis or the transmission could be due to close contact with infected cattle. Also, the transmission could occur through aerosol inhalation of infective droplets or infected body fluids or tissues in the presence of wound from infected animals. The zoonotic risk of M. bovis in humans exemplified by miscellaneous studies across different countries suggested the risk of occupational exposure towards M. bovis infection, especially those animal handlers that have close and unreserved contact with cattle and wildlife populations These animal handlers comprising of livestock farmers, abattoir workers, veterinarians and their assistants, hunters, wildlife workers as well as other animal handlers are at different risk of contracting M. bovis infection, depending on the nature of their jobs and how close is their interaction with infected animals. It is crucial to identify the underlying transmission risk factors and probable transmission pathways involved in the zoonotic transmission of M. bovis from animals to humans for better designation and development of specific preventive measures and guidelines that could reduce the risk of transmission and to protect these different occupational-related/populations at risk. Effective control and disease management of zoonotic tuberculosis caused by M. bovis in humans are also hindered by various challenges and factors involved at animal–human interface. A closer look into factors affecting proper disease control and management of M. bovis are therefore warranted. Hence, in this narrative review, we have gathered a number of different studies to highlight the risk of occupational exposure to M. bovis infection and addressed the limitations and challenges underlying this context. This review also shed lights on various components and approaches in tackling M. bovis infection at animal–human interface.

Influence of different periods of pre-slaughter fasting on microbiological quality of bullfrog carcasses (Lithobates catesbeianus)

ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of different periods of pre-slaughter fasting (F1: 2 to 24 hours and F2: 48 to 72 hours) on the counts of hygiene indicator microorganisms and the presence of Salmonella spp. in carcasses of bullfrogs. Two different stages of the slaughter process were analyzed: after bleeding (A) and after the final carcasses cleaning (B). Samples from each fasting period were analyzed to count hygiene indicator microorganisms (n=30) and Salmonella spp. (n=140). For aerobic mesophilic microorganisms, the variation in fasting periods caused a reduction of 0.69 log10 CFU / g (P<0.05) in F2 when compared to F1 at point B of the slaughter. Coliforms at 35º C and Escherichia coli showed no differences (P >0.05) between the fasting analyzed periods. Considering the presence of E. coli, it was observed that F2 resulted in a reduction of 30% (P<0.05) positivity on point B. For Salmonella spp., the results showed that F2 contributed to an 11.5% reduction in the presence of this bacteria at point B. (P<0.05). Therefore, it is concluded that 48 to 72 hours of pre-slaughter fasting resulted in a positive impact on the microbiological quality of bullfrog carcasses.

Covid-19 pandemic in the lens of food safety and security

The recently emerged coronavirus disease (COVID-19), which has been characterised as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO), is impacting all parts of human society including agriculture, manufacturing, and tertiary sectors involving all service provision industries. This paper aims to give an overview of potential host reservoirs that could cause pandemic outbreak caused by zoonotic transmission. Amongst all, continues surveillance in slaughterhouse for possible pathogens transmission is needed to prevent next pandemic outbreak. This paper also summarizes the potential threats of pandemic to agriculture and aquaculture sector that control almost the total food supply chain and market. The history lesson from the past, emerging and reemerging infectious disease including the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) in 2002, Influenza A H1N1 (swine flu) in 2009, Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) in 2012 and the recent COVID-19 should give us some clue to improve especially the governance to be more ready for next coming pandemic.

COVID-19 Highlights the Need for More Effective Wildlife Trade Legislation

Zoonosis-based epidemics are inevitable unless we revisit our relationship with the natural world, protect habitats, and regulate wildlife trade, including live animals and non-sustenance products. To prevent future zoonoses, governments must establish effective legislation addressing wildlife trade, protection of habitats, and reduction of the wildlife-livestock-human interface.

Understanding the Community Perceptions and Knowledge of Bats and Transmission of Nipah Virus in Bangladesh

Simple Summary

We assessed people’s knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions regarding bat ecology, myths associated with bats, and their involvement in the transmission of Nipah virus (NiV). We found that community people in Bangladesh had inadequate knowledge of bat ecology and myths surrounding NiV. People’s demographic characteristics, such as sex, age, occupation, level of education, and exposure to a Nipah outbreak, were determined to be key factors influencing their knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of bat ecology, myths, and their transmission of NiV. Educational interventions are recommended for targeted groups in the community to raise awareness and to improve people’s current knowledge of the role of bats in ecosystem services and their risky behavioral practices driving NiV transmission in Bangladesh.

Abstract

Bats are known reservoirs of Nipah virus (NiV) and some filoviruses and also appear likely to harbor the evolutionary progenitors of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). While bats are considered a reservoir of deadly viruses, little is known about people’s knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of bat conservation and ecology. The current study aimed to assess community people’s knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of bat ecology, myths, and the role of bats in transmitting NiV in Bangladesh. Since 2001, NiV has been a continuous threat to public health with a mortality rate of approximately 70% in Bangladesh. Over the years, many public health interventions have been implemented to raise awareness about bats and the spreading of NiV among the community peoples of Nipah outbreak areas (NOAs) and Nipah non-outbreak areas (NNOAs). We hypothesized that people from both areas might have similar knowledge of bat ecology and myths about bats but different knowledge regarding their role in the spreading of NiV. Using a four-point Likert scale-based questionnaire, our analysis showed that most people lack adequate knowledge regarding the role of bats in maintaining the ecological balance and instead trust their beliefs in different myths about bats. Factor score analysis showed that respondents’ gender (p = 0.01), the outbreak status of the area (p = 0.03), and their occupation (p = 0.04) were significant factors influencing their knowledge of bat ecology and myths. A regression analysis showed that farmers had 0.34 times the odds of having correct or positive knowledge of bat ecology and myths than businesspersons (odds ratio (OR) = 0.34, 95% confidence interval (95% CI) = 0.15–0.78, p = 0.01). Regarding the spreading of NiV via bats, people had a lower level of knowledge. In NOAs, age (p = 0.00), occupation (p = 0.00), and level of education (p = 0.00) were found to be factors contributing to the amount of knowledge regarding the transmission of NiV, whereas in NNOAs, the contributing factors were occupation (p = 0.00) and level of education (p = 0.01). Regression analysis revealed that respondents who were engaged in services (OR = 3.02, 95% CI = 1.07–8.54, p = 0.04) and who had completed primary education (OR = 3.06, 95% CI = 1.02–9.17, p < 0.05) were likely to have correct knowledge regarding the spreading of NiV. Based on the study results, we recommend educational interventions for targeted groups in the community, highlighting the ecosystem services and conservation of bats so as to improve people’s current knowledge and subsequent behavior regarding the role of bats in ecology and the spreading of NiV in Bangladesh.

Concentration methods for the quantification of coronavirus and other potentially pandemic enveloped virus from wastewater

As the novel SARS-CoV-2 was detected in faeces, environmental researchers have been using centrifugal ultrafiltration, polyethylene glycol precipitation and aluminium hydroxide flocculation to describe its presence in wastewater samples. High recoveries (up to 65%) are described with electronegative filtration when using surrogate viruses, but few literature reports recovery efficiencies using accurate quantification of enveloped viruses. Considering that every single virus will have a different behaviour during viral concentration, it is recommended to use an enveloped virus, and if possible, a betacoronaviruses as murine hepatitis virus, as a surrogate. In this review, we show new data from a newly available technology that provides a quick ultrafiltration protocol for SARS-CoV-2. Wastewater surveillance is an efficient system for the evaluation of the relative prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infections in a community, and there is the need of using reliable concentration methods for an accurate and sensitive quantification of the virus in water.

No Evidence of Coronaviruses or Other Potentially Zoonotic Viruses in Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica) Entering the Wildlife Trade via Malaysia

The legal and illegal trade in wildlife for food, medicine and other products is a globally significant threat to biodiversity that is also responsible for the emergence of pathogens that threaten human and livestock health and our global economy. Trade in wildlife likely played a role in the origin of COVID-19, and viruses closely related to SARS-CoV-2 have been identified in bats and pangolins, both traded widely. To investigate the possible role of pangolins as a source of potential zoonoses, we collected throat and rectal swabs from 334 Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica) confiscated in Peninsular Malaysia and Sabah between August 2009 and March 2019. Total nucleic acid was extracted for viral molecular screening using conventional PCR protocols used to routinely identify known and novel viruses in extensive prior sampling (> 50,000 mammals). No sample yielded a positive PCR result for any of the targeted viral families-Coronaviridae, Filoviridae, Flaviviridae, Orthomyxoviridae and Paramyxoviridae. In the light of recent reports of coronaviruses including a SARS-CoV-2-related virus in Sunda pangolins in China, the lack of any coronavirus detection in our 'upstream' market chain samples suggests that these detections in 'downstream' animals more plausibly reflect exposure to infected humans, wildlife or other animals within the wildlife trade network. While confirmatory serologic studies are needed, it is likely that Sunda pangolins are incidental hosts of coronaviruses. Our findings further support the importance of ending the trade in wildlife globally.

Molecular Detection and Genetic Diversity of Toxoplasma gondii Oocysts in Cat Faeces from Klang Valley, Malaysia, Using B1 and REP Genes in 2018

The major route for Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection is through the ingestion of foods contaminated with oocyst from cat faeces. The microscopic detection of T. gondii oocysts in cat faeces is challenging, which contributes to the failure of detecting or differentiating it from other related coccidian parasites. This study aims to detect T. gondii oocysts in cat faeces using two multicopy-target PCR assays and to evaluate their genetic diversity. Cat faecal (200) samples were collected from pet cats (PCs; 100) and free-roaming cats (FRCs; 100) within Klang Valley, Malaysia, and screened for coccidian oocysts by microscopy using Sheather's sucrose floatation. PCR assays were performed on each faecal sample, targeting a B1 gene and a repetitive element (REP) gene to confirm T. gondii oocysts. Additionally, the PCR amplicons from the REP gene were sequenced to further confirm T. gondii-positive samples for phylogenetic analysis. Microscopy detected 7/200 (3.5%) T. gondii-like oocysts, while both the B1 gene and the REP gene detected 17/200 (8.5%) samples positive for T. gondii. All samples that were microscopically positive for T. gondii-like oocysts were also shown to be positive by both B1 and REP genes. The BLAST results sequenced for 16/200 (8.0%) PCR-positive T. gondii samples revealed homology and genetic heterogeneity with T. gondii strains in the GenBank, except for only one positive sample that did not show a result. There was almost perfect agreement (k = 0.145) between the two PCR assays targeting the B1 gene and the REP gene. This is the first report on microscopic, molecular detection and genetic diversity of T. gondii from cat faecal samples in Malaysia. In addition, the sensitivities of either the B1 gene or REP gene multicopy-target PCR assays are suitable for the accurate detection of T. gondii from cat faeces.

Majid R. A Review on the Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Humans and Animals Reported in Malaysia from 2008-2018

Toxoplasmosis is a disease caused by the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii). Human toxoplasmosis seroprevalence in Malaysia has increased since it was first reported in 1973 as shown in previous reviews of 1991 and 2007. However, over a decade since the last review, comprehensive data on toxoplasmosis in Malaysia is lacking. This work aimed at reviewing articles on toxoplasmosis research in Malaysia in order to identify the research gaps, create public awareness, and efforts made so far and proffer management options on the disease. The present review examines the available published research articles from 2008 to 2018 related to toxoplasmosis research conducted in Malaysia. The articles reviewed were retrieved from nine credible databases such as Web of Science, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, PubMed, Scopus, Springer, Wiley online library, Ovid, and Cochrane using the keywords; Malaysia, toxoplasmosis, Toxoplasma gondii, toxoplasma encephalitis, seroprevalence, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) patients, pregnant women, genotype strain, anti-toxoplasma antibodies, felines, and vaccine. The data highlighted seropositive cases from healthy community members in Pangkor Island (59.7%) and among migrant workers (57.4%) at alarming rates, as well as 42.5% in pregnant women. Data on animal seroprevalence were limited and there was no information on cats as the definitive host. Genetic characterization of Toxoplasma gondii from HIV patients; pregnant women, and domestic cats is lacking. This present review on toxoplasmosis is beneficial to researchers, health workers, animal health professionals, and policymakers. Therefore, attention is required to educate and enlighten health workers and the general public about the risk factors associated with T. gondii infection in Malaysia.

Toxic time bombs: Frequent detection of anticoagulant rodenticides in urban reptiles at multiple trophic levels

Anticoagulant rodenticides (ARs) are regularly used around the world to control pest mammals. Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (SGARs) are highly persistent in biological tissue and have a high potential for bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Consequently, exposure and poisoning of non-target organisms has been frequently documented, especially in countries with unregulated AR sales and usage. Most of this research has focussed on rodent-predators, usually raptors and predatory mammals, although exposure has also been documented in invertebrates and insectivorous fauna. Few studies have explored non-target exposure in reptiles, despite species sharing similar trophic positions and dietary preferences to other exposed fauna. We tested three abundant urban reptile species in Perth, Western Australia that differ in diet and trophic tiers for multiple AR exposure, the dugite Pseudonaja affinis (rodent-predator), the bobtail Tiliqua rugosa (omnivore) and the tiger snake Notechis scutatus occidentalis (frog-predator). We found frequent exposure in all three species (91% in dugites, 60% in bobtails and 45% in tiger snakes). Mean combined liver concentrations of ARs of exposed individuals were 0.178 mg/kg in dugites, 0.040 mg/kg in bobtails and 0.009 mg/kg in tiger snakes. High exposure frequency and liver concentration was expected for the dugite. Exposure in the other species is more surprising and implies widespread AR contamination of the food web. We discuss the likelihood of global AR exposure of urban reptiles, highlight the potential for reptiles to be important vectors of ARs in the food web and highlight implications for humans consuming wild reptiles.

COVID-19, Health, Conservation, and Shared Wellbeing: Details Matter

Many have stridently recommended banning markets like the one where coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) originally spread. We highlight that millions of people around the world depend on markets for subsistence and the diverse use of animals globally defies uniform bans. We argue that the immediate and fair priority is critical scrutiny of wildlife trade.

Emerging zoonotic diseases originating in mammals: a systematic review of effects of anthropogenic land-use change

Zoonotic pathogens and parasites that are transmitted from vertebrates to humans are a major public health risk with high associated global economic costs. The spread of these pathogens and risk of transmission accelerate with recent anthropogenic land-use changes (LUC) such as deforestation, urbanisation, and agricultural intensification, factors that are expected to increase in the future due to human population expansion and increasing demand for resources.We systematically review the literature on anthropogenic LUC and zoonotic diseases, highlighting the most prominent mammalian reservoirs and pathogens, and identifying avenues for future research.The majority of studies were global reviews that did not focus on specific taxa. South America and Asia were the most-studied regions, while the most-studied LUC was urbanisation. Livestock were studied more within the context of agricultural intensification, carnivores with urbanisation and helminths, bats with deforestation and viruses, and primates with habitat fragmentation and protozoa.Research into specific animal reservoirs has improved our understanding of how the spread of zoonotic diseases is affected by LUC. The behaviour of hosts can be altered when their habitats are changed, impacting the pathogens they carry and the probability of disease spreading to humans. Understanding this has enabled the identification of factors that alter the risk of emergence (such as virulence, pathogen diversity, and ease of transmission). Yet, many pathogens and impacts of LUC other than urbanisation have been understudied.Predicting how zoonotic diseases emerge and spread in response to anthropogenic LUC requires more empirical and data synthesis studies that link host ecology and responses with pathogen ecology and disease spread. The link between anthropogenic impacts on the natural environment and the recent COVID-19 pandemic highlights the urgent need to understand how anthropogenic LUC affects the risk of spillover to humans and spread of zoonotic diseases originating in mammals.

Meat consumption: Which are the current global risks? A review of recent (2010-2020) evidences

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Consumption of fatty meats may increase risks of cardiovascular diseases and cancer.

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Production of red meats increases greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions contributing to the global warming.

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Consumption of wild meats can pose some serious risks of transmission of viruses from animals to humans.

Meat consumption has been increasing since the 1960s, but especially from the 1980s decade to today. Although meat means an important source of nutrients, it is also evident that a great consumption of this source of proteins has also a negative environmental impact. Livestock production does not only have a negative influence on GHG emissions, but also on the water footprint, water pollution, and water scarcity. With respect to human health, in 2015 the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) stated that red meat was a probable carcinogen to humans (Group 2A), while consumption of processed meat was carcinogenic to humans (Group 1). Most environmental contaminants (PCDD/Fs, PCBs, PBDEs, PCNs, etc.) that are frequently found in meats are highly soluble in fats. Therefore, avoiding ingesting fats from red meats and meat products, doubtless would help in the prevention, not only of the well-known cardiovascular diseases derived of fats consumption, but also of certain kinds of cancers, mainly colorectal cancer. On the other hand, consumption of meat – especially wild meat – is related to virus infections, as many viruses have been found in wild meat trade markets. Based on the scientific literature here reviewed, we have noted that the results of the investigations conducted after the statement of the IARC, have corroborated the recommendation of reducing significantly the consumption of red meats and meat products. In turn, the reduction of meat consumption should contribute to the reduction of GHG emissions and their considerable impact on global warming and climate change. It seems evident that human dietary habits regarding meat consumption in general, and red meats and wild meats in particular, should be significantly modified downward, as much and as soon as possible.

The potential of using wild edible animals as alternative food sources among food-insecure areas in Indonesia

Purpose

This study aims to assess the household food security status and explore the potency of wild edible animals as a food source in the food insecurity–prone area of Bangkalan district, Madura, Indonesia.

Approach/methodology/design

This cross-sectional quantitative study used a mixed-method approach. A total of 66 participants were purposively recruited. Household food security was assessed using the short version of the U.S. Household Food Security Survey Module (US-HFSSM). A list of available wild edible animals was obtained from each interview using a structured questionnaire. For the qualitative study, an in-depth interview was conducted among key informants at subvillage level.

Findings

We found that 33.4 percent of households were food insecure. At least 18 kinds of wild edible animal protein consumed by the respondents were identified in the study area, which consisted of five kinds of insects, five kinds of fish, three types of birds, and two mammals. Most of the wild edible animals were rich in protein.

Originality/value

Wild edible animals can be promoted to support household food security. Villagers did not usually consider consuming wild edible animals as a normal practice as there were concerns about the taste and safety of eating wild animal foods. Methods of processing and cooking foods to improve the taste and safety aspects need to be explored. The information obtained from this study adds more evidence related to the potential of edible wild animals as a food alternative for households in food-insecure areas.

Recurrent Anthrax Outbreaks in Humans, Livestock, and Wildlife in the Same Locality, Kenya, 2014-2017

Epidemiologic data indicate a global distribution of anthrax outbreaks associated with certain ecosystems that promote survival and viability of Bacillus anthracis spores. Here, we characterized three anthrax outbreaks involving humans, livestock, and wildlife that occurred in the same locality in Kenya between 2014 and 2017. Clinical and epidemiologic data on the outbreaks were collected using active case finding and review of human, livestock, and wildlife health records. Information on temporal and spatial distribution of prior outbreaks in the area was collected using participatory epidemiology. The 2014-2017 outbreaks in Nakuru West subcounty affected 15 of 71 people who had contact with infected cattle (attack rate = 21.1%), including seven with gastrointestinal, six with cutaneous, and two with oropharyngeal forms of the disease. Two (13.3%) gastrointestinal human anthrax cases died. No human cases were associated with infected wildlife. Of the 54 cattle owned in 11 households affected, 20 died (attack rate = 37%). The 2015 outbreak resulted in death of 10.5% of the affected herbivorous wildlife at Lake Nakuru National Park, including 745 of 4,500 African buffaloes (species-specific mortality rate = 17%) and three of 18 endangered white rhinos (species-specific mortality rate = 16%). The species mortality rate ranged from 1% to 5% for the other affected wildlife species. Participatory epidemiology identified prior outbreaks between 1973 and 2011 in the same area. The frequency and severity of outbreaks in this area suggests that it is an anthrax hotspot ideal for investigating risk factors associated with long-term survival of anthrax spores and outbreak occurrence.

Recombinase polymerase amplification assay for rapid detection of Monkeypox virus

In this study, a rapid method for the detection of Central and West Africa clades of Monkeypox virus (MPXV) using recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) assay targeting the G2R gene was developed. MPXV, an Orthopoxvirus, is a zoonotic dsDNA virus, which is listed as a biothreat agent. RPA was operated at a single constant temperature of 42°C and produced results within 3 to 10 minutes. The MPXV-RPA-assay was highly sensitive with a limit of detection of 16 DNA molecules/μl. The clinical performance of the MPXV-RPA-assay was tested using 47 sera and whole blood samples from humans collected during the recent MPXV outbreak in Nigeria as well as 48 plasma samples from monkeys some of which were experimentally infected with MPXV. The specificity of the MPXV-RPA-assay was 100% (50/50), while the sensitivity was 95% (43/45). This new MPXV-RPA-assay is fast and can be easily utilised at low resource settings using a solar powered mobile suitcase laboratory.

Comparative Ecology of Bartonella and Brucella Infections in Wild Carnivores

Phylogenetic sister clades Bartonella and Brucella within the order Rhizobiales present some common biological characteristics as well as evident differences in adaptations to their mammalian reservoirs. We reviewed published data on Bartonella and Brucella infections in wild carnivores to compare the ecology of these bacteria in relatively similar host environments. Arthropod vectors are the main mechanism for Bartonella species transmission between mammalian hosts. The role of arthropods in transmission of Brucella remains disputed, however experimental studies and reported detection of Brucella in arthropods indicate potential vector transmission. More commonly, transmission of Brucella occurs via contact exposure to infected animals or the environment contaminated with their discharges. Of 26 species of carnivores tested for both Bartonella and Brucella, 58% harbored either. Among them were bobcats, African lions, golden jackals, coyotes, wolves, foxes, striped skunks, sea otters, raccoons, and harbor seals. The most common species of Bartonella in wild carnivores was B. henselae, found in 23 species, followed by B. rochalimae in 12, B. clarridgeiae in ten, and B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii in seven. Among Brucella species, Br. abortus was reported in over 30 terrestrial carnivore species, followed by Br. canis in seven. Marine carnivores, such as seals and sea lions, can host Br. pinnipedialis. In contrast, there is no evidence of a Bartonella strain specific for marine mammals. Bartonella species are present practically in every sampled species of wild felids, but of 14 Brucella studies of felids, only five reported Brucella and those were limited to detection of antibodies. We found no reports of Bartonella in bears while Brucella was detected in these animals. There is evident host-specificity of Bartonella species in wild carnivores (e.g., B. henselae in felids and B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii in canids). A co-adaptation of Brucella with terrestrial wild carnivore hosts is not as straightforward as in domestic animals. Wild carnivores often carry the same pathogens as their domesticated relatives (cats and dogs), but the risk of exposure varies widely because of differences in biology, distribution, and historical interactions.

Wild Boar: A Reservoir of Foodborne Zoonoses

Wild boar populations around the world have increased dramatically over past decades. Climate change, generating milder winters with less snow, may affect their spread into northern regions. Wild boars can serve as reservoirs for a number of bacteria, viruses, and parasites, which are transmissible to humans and domestic animals through direct interaction with wild boars, through contaminated food or indirectly through contaminated environment. Disease transmission between wild boars, domestic animals, and humans is an increasing threat to human and animal health, especially in areas with high wild boar densities. This article reviews important foodborne zoonoses, including bacterial diseases (brucellosis, salmonellosis, tuberculosis, and yersiniosis), parasitic diseases (toxoplasmosis and trichinellosis), and the viral hepatitis E. The focus is on the prevalence of these diseases and the causative microbes in wild boars. The role of wild boars in transmitting these pathogens to humans and livestock is also briefly discussed.

Parasitic infections in relation to practices and knowledge in a rural village in Northern Thailand with emphasis on fish-borne trematode infection

The present study integrates several aspects of a parasitological survey in a rural community village combining community knowledge of parasites, their potential transmission routes and health risk factors. A rural community located in Northern Thailand was surveyed for intestinal parasites, and an overall prevalence of 45.2% for helminths and 4.8% for protozoan infections was identified. Socio-demographic characteristics, customs and perceptions were compiled using individual questionnaires and interviews for participants surveyed for parasitic screening. The results allowed us to determine the knowledge and perception of local people concerning helminthic infection and transmission. Despite the fact that the participants in this community were aware of parasitic transmission routes, their widespread custom of eating raw fish and meat render the reduction of helminthiasis difficult. A detailed study on the infection of fish-borne parasitic trematodes, the most prevalent helminth, allowed us to determine that the distance from a given household to the river is a determinant of infection intensity. Health education activities organised in the local community resulted in a change in perception of risks associated with parasite transmission.

Variation among populations in the immune protein composition of mother's milk reflects subsistence pattern

LAY SUMMARY

Adaptive immune proteins in mothers' milk are more variable than innate immune proteins across populations and subsistence strategies. These results suggest that the immune defenses in milk are shaped by a mother's environment throughout her life.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Mother's milk contains immune proteins that play critical roles in protecting the infant from infection and priming the infant's developing immune system during early life. The composition of these molecules in milk, particularly the acquired immune proteins, is thought to reflect a mother's immunological exposures throughout her life. In this study, we examine the composition of innate and acquired immune proteins in milk across seven populations with diverse disease and cultural ecologies.

METHODOLOGY

Milk samples (n = 164) were collected in Argentina, Bolivia, Nepal, Namibia, Philippines, Poland and the USA. Populations were classified as having one of four subsistence patterns: urban-industrialism, rural-shop, horticulturalist-forager or agro-pastoralism. Milk innate (lactalbumin, lactoferrin and lysozyme) and acquired (Secretory IgA, IgG and IgM) protein concentrations were determined using triple-quadrupole mass spectrometry.

RESULTS

Both innate and acquired immune protein composition in milk varied among populations, though the acquired immune protein composition of milk differed more among populations. Populations living in closer geographic proximity or having similar subsistence strategies (e.g. agro-pastoralists from Nepal and Namibia) had more similar milk immune protein compositions. Agro-pastoralists had different milk innate immune protein composition from horticulturalist-foragers and urban-industrialists. Acquired immune protein composition differed among all subsistence strategies except horticulturist-foragers and rural-shop.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our results reveal fundamental variation in milk composition that has not been previously explored in human milk research. Further study is needed to understand what specific aspects of the local environment influence milk composition and the effects this variation may have on infant health outcomes.