Flavonoids of Rosa roxburghii Tratt offers protection against radiation induced apoptosis and inflammation in mouse thymus

Chemical diversity, traditional uses, and bioactivities of Rosa roxburghii Tratt: A comprehensive review

Rosa roxburghii Tratt (RRT), known as chestnut rose, has been a subject of growing interest because of its diverse chemical composition and wide range of traditional uses. This comprehensive review aimed to thoroughly examine RRT, including its traditional applications, chemical diversity, and various bioactivities. The chemical profile of this plant is characterized by the presence of essential nutrients such as vitamin C (ascorbic acid), flavonoids, triterpenes, organic acids, tannins, phenolic compounds, polysaccharides, carotenoids, triterpenoids, volatile compounds, amino acids, and essential oils. These constituents contribute to the medicinal and nutritional value. Additionally, we explore the multifaceted bioactivities of RRT, including its potential as an anticancer agent, antioxidant, antiaging agent, antiatherogenic agent, hypoglycemic agent, immunoregulatory modulator, radioprotective agent, antimutagenic agent, digestive system regulator, anti-inflammatory agent, cardioprotective agent, and antibacterial agent, and its intriguing role in modulating the gut microbiota. Furthermore, we discuss the geographical distribution and genetic diversity of this plant species and shed light on its ecological significance. This comprehensive review provides a holistic understanding of RRT, bridges traditional knowledge with contemporary scientific research, and highlights its potential applications in medicine, nutrition, and pharmacology.

Rosa roxburghii Tratt juice inhibits NF-κB and increases IL-2 to alleviates the Foxp3-mediated Tregs imbalance in the peripheral blood of arseniasis patients

Arsenic can cause immune inflammation, which is the basis of arsenic-induced damage to multiple organs and systems. Forkhead box P3 (Foxp3)-labelled CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) play an essential role in maintaining immune homeostasis. Nuclear factor-κb (NF-κB) and Interleukin-2 (IL-2) are critical regulators of Foxp3. Rosa roxburghii Tratt (RRT) is an edible medicinal plant with anti-inflammation effects. In this study, a control group (n = 41) and an arseniasis group (n = 209) were recruited, and screened subjects from the arseniasis patients for RRTJ (n = 46) or placebo (n = 43) to explore the possible mechanism by which RRT alleviates immune inflammation. The results indicated that RRTJ can inhibits NF-κB and increases IL-2, and alleviates the Foxp3-mediated Tregs imbalance in the peripheral blood of arseniasis patients. In summary, these findings suggest a novel intervention or therapeutic target for immune inflammation in arseniasis patients and provide new evidence that RRTJ inhibits immune inflammation.

Graphical abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-023-01384-0.

Effect and Correlation of Rosa roxburghii Tratt Juice Fermented by Lactobacillus paracasei SR10-1 on Oxidative Stress and Gut Microflora Dysbiosis in Streptozotocin (STZ)-Induced Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Mice

Rosa roxburghii Tratt (RRT) is a kind of excellent fruit, with many healthy functions. RRT fruit dietary interventions have demonstrated a remarkable potential to prevent type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). In the present study, the effects of Lactobacillus paracasei SR10-1 fermented RRT juice (FRRT) on the oxidative stress, short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and gut microbiota in T2DM mice induced by high-sugar and high-fat diets and streptozotocin (STZ) were investigated using GC-MS and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The results showed that medium-dose FRRT intervention resulted in significantly decreased levels of TG, TC, LDL-C, BUN, creatinine, and MDA (p < 0.05) and significantly increased levels of HDL-C, GSH-PX, CAT, and SOD of T2DM mice (p < 0.05). The levels of acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid, and isovaleric acid were significantly increased, by 142.28%, 428.59%, 1968.66%, and 81.04% (p < 0.05), respectively. The relative abundance of Firmicutes, Lachnospiraceae, Verrucomicrobiaceae, Akkermansia, and Allobaculum was significantly increased (p < 0.05), and the relative abundance of Proteobacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, Veillonellaceae, Phascolarctobacterium, and Klebsiella was significantly decreased (p < 0.05). Correlation analysis showed that Phascolarctobacterium was significantly negatively correlated with weight (p < 0.05), SOD (p < 0.01), CAT (p < 0.05), and T-AOC (p < 0.05). Akkermansia was significantly negatively correlated with weight (p < 0.05). Conclusively, medium-dose FRRT potentially improved T2DM by reversing dyslipidemia, decreasing oxidative stress, increasing SCFAs, and regulating gut microbiota composition. The medium-dose FRRT may serve as a novel T2DM dietary strategy to prevent T2DM.

Effects of Rosa roxburghii Tratt on Ulcerative Colitis: An Integrated Analysis of Network Pharmacology and Experimental Validation

Rosa roxburghii Tratt is a traditional Chinese plant that has been used to treat different inflammatory diseases. The purpose of this study was to investigate the mechanism of action of Rosa roxburghii Tratt extract (RRTE) against ulcerative colitis (UC) using network pharmacology and experimental validation. HPLC-Q/Orbitrap MS was used to rapidly identify the substances contained in RRTE after extracting the active components from the fruit. Then, network pharmacology combined with molecular docking was used to explore the critical target and potential mechanism of RRTE against UC using the active ingredients in RRTE as the research object. Data are presented in a visual manner. Finally, the pharmacological effects of RRTE in alleviating UC were further verified using a DSS-induced UC model of NCM460. The results showed that 25 components in RRTE were identified. A total of 250 targets of the active components and 5376 targets associated with UC were collected. Furthermore, a systematic analysis of the Protein-Protein Interaction (PPI) networks suggests that epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), phosphoinositide-3-kinase regulatory subunit 1 (PIK3R1), and serine/threonine kinase 1 (AKT1) are critical targets for RRTE in the treatment of UC. A comprehensive regulatory network analysis showed that RRTE alleviated UC through the EGFR-mediated PI3K/Akt pathway, and molecular docking showed that active components could strongly bind to EGFR, PIK3R1, and AKT1. In addition, RRTE alleviated dextran sulfate sodium salt (DSS)-induced cell injury and significantly decreased the protein expression levels of EGFR, PIK3R1, and p-AKT in NCM460 cells in vitro. Furthermore, RRTE significantly regulated the expression of the apoptosis-related proteins Apoptotic protease-activating factor 1 (Apaf1), cleaved caspase-3, B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl2), and Bcl2 associated X protein (Bax). In conclusion, the components of RRTE are complex, and RRTE can relieve UC through the EGFR-mediated PI3K/Akt pathway.

PARP-1: a critical regulator in radioprotection and radiotherapy-mechanisms, challenges, and therapeutic opportunities

Background: Since its discovery, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) has been extensively studied due to its regulatory role in numerous biologically crucial pathways. PARP inhibitors have opened new therapeutic avenues for cancer patients and have gained approval as standalone treatments for certain types of cancer. With continued advancements in the research of PARP inhibitors, we can fully realize their potential as therapeutic targets for various diseases. Purpose: To assess the current understanding of PARP-1 mechanisms in radioprotection and radiotherapy based on the literature. Methods: We searched the PubMed database and summarized information on PARP inhibitors, the interaction of PARP-1 with DNA, and the relationships between PARP-1 and p53/ROS, NF-κB/DNA-PK, and caspase3/AIF, respectively. Results: The enzyme PARP-1 plays a crucial role in repairing DNA damage and modifying proteins. Cells exposed to radiation can experience DNA damage, such as single-, intra-, or inter-strand damage. This damage, associated with replication fork stagnation, triggers DNA repair mechanisms, including those involving PARP-1. The activity of PARP-1 increases 500-fold on DNA binding. Studies on PARP-1-knockdown mice have shown that the protein regulates the response to radiation. A lack of PARP-1 also increases the organism's sensitivity to radiation injury. PARP-1 has been found positively or negatively regulate the expression of specific genes through its modulation of key transcription factors and other molecules, including NF-κB, p53, Caspase 3, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF). Conclusion: This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the physiological and pathological roles of PARP-1 and examines the impact of PARP-1 inhibitors under conditions of ionizing radiation exposure. The review also emphasizes the challenges and opportunities for developing PARP-1 inhibitors to improve the clinical outcomes of ionizing radiation damage.

Activation of long-non-coding RNA NEAT1 sponging microRNA-147 inhibits radiation damage by targeting PDPK1 in troxerutin radioprotection

A better understanding of the molecular mechanism involving the lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA network underlying radiation damage can be beneficial for radioprotection. This study was designed to investigate the potential role of lncRNA NEAT1, miR-147 and Phosphoinositide Dependent Protein Kinase 1 (PDPK1) interaction in radioprotection by troxerutin (TRT). We first demonstrated that NEAT1 sponged miR-147, and PDPK1 mRNA was the primary target of miR-147. In the cells, the NEAT1 and PDPK1 levels were downregulated after the radiation but increased after the treatment with TRT. The miR-147 level was significantly induced by radiation and inhibited by TRT. NEAT1 negatively regulated the expression of miR-147, whereas miR-47 targeted PDPK1 to downregulate its expression. In radioprotection, TRT effectively upregulated NEAT1 to inhibit miR-147 and to upregulate PDPK1. We concluded that TRT could promote radioprotection by stimulating NEAT1 to upregulate PDPK1 expression by suppressing miR-147. NEAT1 could be a critical therapeutic target of radiation damage.

Component analysis and anti-pulmonary fibrosis effects of Rosa sterilis juice

Rosa sterilis is a new variety of Rosa roxburghii Tratt, and is rich in bioactive substances, but its role in pulmonary fibrosis has not been elucidated. The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential components of Rosa sterili juice (RSJ) and its anti-pulmonary fibrosis effects. We employed HPLC-Q-Exactive Orbitrap-MS, HPLC, and ICP-MS to analyze the composition of RSJ, and carried out free radical scavenging assays to determine its antioxidant activity. Then, the anti-pulmonary fibrosis effect of RSJ was evaluated using the bleomycin-induced mice model and the TGF-β1-induced cell model. A total of 49 components were identified in RSJ, and the vitamin C content was 11.29 ± 0.05 mg mL^-1. Catechin was the most abundant phenol, and potassium was the highest mineral element in RSJ. Attractively, we found that RSJ alleviated bleomycin-induced inflammation infiltration and tissue injury, and inhibited TGF-β1-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition and fibroblast differentiation through the Smad2/3 signaling pathway. In conclusion, we discovered a new health-protective activity of Rosa sterilis, and the high levels of polyphenols, flavonoids, and vitamin C may be the basic anti-fibrosis substances.

Metabolomics Combined with Transcriptomics Analysis Revealed the Amino Acids, Phenolic Acids, and Flavonol Derivatives Biosynthesis Network in Developing Rosa roxburghii Fruit

Rosa roxburghii Tratt. is a specific fruit with high nutritional value and antioxidative activities. However, the key metabolites and their biosynthesis are still unknown. Herein, a main cultivated variety, ‘Guinong 5’ (Rr5), was chosen to analyze the metabolomics of the three developmental stages of R. roxburghii fruit by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A total of 533 metabolites were identified, of which 339 were significantly altered. Total phenols, flavonoids, and amino acids were significantly correlated to at least one in vitro antioxidant activity. The conjoint Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) co-enrichment analysis of metabolome and transcriptome was focused on amino acid, phenylpropanoid, and flavonoid biosynthesis pathways. The amino acid, phenolic acid, and flavonol biosynthesis networks were constructed with 32 structural genes, 48 RrMYBs, and 23 metabolites. Of these, six RrMYBs correlated to 9–15 metabolites in the network were selected to detect the gene expression in six different R. roxburghii genotypes fruits. Subsequently, 21 key metabolites were identified in the in vitro antioxidant activities in the fruits at various developmental stages or in fruits of different R. roxburghii genotypes. We found that four key RrMYBs were related to the significantly varied amino acids, phenolic acids, and flavonol derivatives in the network during fruit development and the key metabolites in the in vitro antioxidative activities in the fruits of six R. roxburghii genotypes. This finding provided novel insights into the flavonoid, polyphenol, and amino acid synthesis in R. roxburghii.

Construction of a Microfluidic Platform With Core-Shell CdSSe@ZnS Quantum Dot-Encoded Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Microspheres for Screening and Locating Matrix Metalloproteinase-2 Inhibitors From Fruits of Rosa roxburghii

The microfluidic platform is a versatile tool for screening and locating bioactive molecules from functional foods. Here, a layer-by-layer assembly approach was used to fabricate core-shell CdSSe@ZnS quantum dot encoded superparamagnetic iron oxide microspheres, which served as a carrier for matrix metalloproteinase-2. The matrix metalloproteinase-2 camouflaged magnetic microspheres was further incorporated into a homemade microfluidic platform and incubated with extracts of fruits of Rosa roxburghii. The flow rate of the microfluidic platform was tuned. The major influencing parameters on ligand binding, such as dissociate solvents, incubation pH, ion strength, temperature, and incubation time were also optimized by using ellagic acid as a model compound. The specific binding ligands were sent for structure elucidation by mass spectrometry. The absolute recovery of ellagic acid ranged from 101.14 to 102.40% in the extract of R. roxburghii under the optimal extraction conditions. The linearity was pretty well in the range of 0.009–1.00 mg·ml⁻¹ (R² = 0.9995). The limit of detection was 0.003 mg·ml⁻¹. The relative SDs of within-day and between-day precision were <1.91%. A total of thirteen ligands were screened out from fruits of R. roxburghii, which were validated for their inhibitory effect by enzyme assay. Of note, eleven new matrix metalloproteinase-2 inhibitors were identified, which may account for the antitumor effect of fruits of R. roxburghii.

Chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of medicinal plants from Rosa genus

The genus Rosa (Rosaceae family) includes about 200 species spread in the world, and this genus shows unique advantages in medicine and food. To date, several scholars concentrated on compounds belonging to flavonoids, triterpenes, tannins, polysaccharide, phenolic acids, fatty acids, organic acids, carotenoids, and vitamins. Pharmacological effects such as antineoplastic and anti-cancer properties, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, liver protection, regulate blood sugar, antimicrobial activity, antiviral activity, as well as nervous system protection and cardiovascular protection were wildly reported. This article reviews the chemical constituents, pharmacological effects, applications and safety evaluations of Rosa plants, which provides a reference for the comprehensive utilization of medicine and food resources and gives a scientific basis for the development of medicinal plants of the genus Rosa.

Superfruits in China: Bioactive phytochemicals and their potential health benefits - A Review

The term "superfruit" usually refers to certain fruits, which are rich in antioxidant components, therefore, are beneficial to human health. In China, there has been the concept of health preservation and dietary therapy through food intake in a long history. However, some other superfruits growing mainly in China have not attracted extensive attention, such as Cili, Goji berry, and sea buckthorn. Many studies suggested all of these superfruits showed strong antioxidant effects and anti-inflammatory activity in common. However, there are various other advantages and functions in different fruits. This article reviewed the research findings from the existing literature published about major antioxidant bioactive compounds and the potential health benefits of these fruits. The phytochemicals from superfruits are bioaccessible and bioavailable in humans with promising health benefits. More studies are needed to validate the health benefits of these superfruits. It would provide essential information for further research and functional food development.

Physicochemical, biological properties, and flavour profile of Rosa roxburghii Tratt, Pyracantha fortuneana, and Rosa laevigata Michx fruits: A comprehensive review

In China, three Rosaceae fruits with distinctive flavours and functions have recently been transformed from edible plants into standardised juice or beverage products. To enhance the development of these fruit products, the results and conclusions from various investigations of the chemical and biological properties of fruits should be summarised. Based on industrial advances, there are still some limitation in the research and development of these fruit products that need to be addressed. Therefore, in this report, we provided a comprehensive and rigorous review to summarise critical data from phytochemical and biological investigations and from flavour profiles and industrial development of these fruit products. Our goal is to provide insights into recent research findings in order to advance studies and developments of products of these flavourful fruits from a reasonable perspective.

Botanical characteristics, phytochemistry and related biological activities of Rosa roxburghii Tratt fruit, and its potential use in functional foods: a review

Due to the growing global population, reduction in arable land and effects of climate change, incongruity between food supply and demand has become increasingly severe. Nowadays, with awareness of the elementary nutrients required for human growth, increasing attention is being paid to the health and medical functions of food. Along with increased food production achieved by modern agricultural techniques, underutilised functional foods are an important strategy for solving food security problems and maintaining the nutritional quality of the human diet. Rosa roxburghii Tratt (RRT) is a natural fruit that contains unique functional and nutritional constituents, which are characterised by a high anti-oxidant potential. This review summarises the biological characteristics, chemical composition, health-promoting properties and development status of RRT products to inspire investigations on the use of RRT fruit as a functional food, dietary supplement and pharmaceutical additive. The nutrients and functional ingredients of RRT fruit are described in detail to provide more reference information for nutritionists and pharmacists.

The Roles of Flavonols/Flavonoids in Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation

The inflammatory process in the human body is a physiological response involving many cellular types and mediators. It results in scar formation to separate the damaged area from the surrounding healthy tissue. Because of increased blood-brain barrier permeability following inflammation, leukocytes infiltrate the CNS and are also supplemented by proinflammatory mediators. However, an acute inflammatory process after cerebral trauma or stroke may also result in a prolonged lesion formation, leading to a severe neuronal loss. The prolonged inflammatory process in the CNS may cause serious damage to the neuronal system. It may lead to CNS damage in such a way that endangers functional integration and proinflammatory system balance. Effects of different flavonoid species on ischemia-reperfusion injury and cognition and function have also been shown in experimental studies. Flavonoids are presented broadly in plants and diets. They are believed to have various bioactive effects including anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-cancer, anti-aging, etc. Quercetine is the predominant dietary flavonoid. Main sources are tea, onion, and apple. It is demonstrated that the frequently consumed food like soybean, peanut, mustard, rice, sesame, olive, potatoes, onion, and oats contain flavonoids. Catechin and its derivates which are isolated from tea leaves have antioxidant activity but in low doses, their prooxidant effects are also reported. Ipriflavone which is a synthetic flavonoid may increase total calcium in bone. In this review, the effects of flavonoids species on the inflammatory process in the neurodegenerative process were examined as general.

Research progress on radioprotective effects of bee products

Radiation exposure is an on going and serious threat in military and public health concern. There is an unmet need for effective preventative or mitigative treatments against radiation-induced injuries. The handful of Food and Drug Administration in the US approved radiation protection agents cannot be widely used due to their side effects. Some natural nontoxic compounds such as bee products have been reported to prevent and treat radiation-induced injuries (e.g. scavenging free radicals, inhibiting cell apoptosis and reducing DNA damage), indicating that they may be a potential option as a safe radioprotective agent. Bee products are nontoxic and have no known side effects on the human body, and are effective in the field of radiation protection. They are expected to be interesting drug candidates for preventing and treating radiation-induced injuries. This article reviews the prevention and treatment of bee products on radiation-induced injuries.

Screening and characterisation of β-glucosidase production strains from Rosa roxburghii Tratt

The β-glucosidase properties from one yeast isolate identified as Wickerhamomyces anomalus C4 were characterised. The β-glucosidase activity of W. anomalus C4 was 41.83 ± 0.25 mU/mL, and the optimum temperature and pH were 40 °C and 5.0, respectively. The glucose, 10% v/v of ethanol and 10 mmol/L of Cu2+ inhibited the β-glycosidases activities. The isolate W. anomalus C4 had a stronger alcohol metabolism capacity than commercial Saccharomyces cerevisiae X16. Besides, fermentation with W. anomalus C4 alone and co-fermentations with S. cerevisiae X16 and W. anomalus C4 reduced the volatile acids content and the sourness value compared to S. cerevisiae X16 control. Moreover, inoculation with W. anomalus C4 could enhance volatile aroma richness and complexity of Rosa roxburghii wines, regardless of type or amount thereof. Therefore, the R. roxburghii native yeast isolate W. anomalus C4 may have some application potentials for R. roxburghii wine-making.

Flavonoids from Rosaroxburghii Tratt prevent reactive oxygen species-mediated DNA damage in thymus cells both combined with and without PARP-1 expression after exposure to radiation in vivo

This study aimed to evaluate the role of FRT in ROS/DNA regulation with or without PARP-1 in radiation-injured thymus cells. The administration of FRT to PARP-1-/- (KO) mice demonstrated that FRT significantly increased the viability of thymus cells and decreased their rate of apoptosis through PARP-1. Radiation increased the levels of ROS, γ-H2AX and 53BP1, and induced DNA double strand breaks. Compared with wild type (WT) mice, levels of ROS, γ-H2AX and 53BP1 in KO mice were much less elevated. The FRT treatment groups also showed little reduction in these indicators in KO mice compared with WT mice. The results of the KO mice study indicated that FRT reduced ROS activation through inhibition of PARP-1. Furthermore, FRT reduced the concentrations of γ-H2AX by decreasing ROS activation. However, we found that FRT did not regulate 53BP1, a marker of DNA damage, because of its elimination of ROS. Levels of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), exhibited no significant difference after irradiation in KO mice. To summarize, ROS suppression by PARP-1 knockout in KO mice highlights potential therapeutic target either by PARP-1 inhibition combined with radiation or by treatment with a drug therapy alone. AIF-induced apoptosis could not be activated in KO mice.

Antimicrobial mechanism of strictinin isomers extracted from the root of Rosa roxburghii Tratt (Ci Li Gen)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The root of Rosa roxburghii Tratt (Ci Li Gen) is a kind of Chinese ethnomedicine in Gui Zhou province, used for the treatment of abdominal pain, acute bacillary dysentery, gastroenteritis and other diseases in human and livestock.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to isolate and identify the effective antimicrobial components from the ethyl acetate extract of the Ci Li Gen and to investigate its antimicrobial mechanism afterwards.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effective antimicrobial components in the ethyl acetate extract from the Ci Li Gen were isolated by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and identified by high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). The antibacterial activity was evaluated by the minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) measured by microdilution technique. The antibacterial mechanism was investigated by the time-kill curve, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) combined with NanoLC-ESI-MS/MS, intracellular esterase activity detected by Flow cytometry, and the ultrastructural changes of the Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 observed by scanning electron microscope (SEM).

RESULTS

The effective antimicrobial component (peak 4) was identified as strictinin isomers by HRMS and NMR. The MIC of strictinin isomers against E. coli was 0.125 mg/mL. With respect to the negative control group, the results of SDS-PAGE and NanoLC-ESI-MS/MS showed that the up-regulated proteins of the strictinin isomers treated group were Metal-binding protein ZinT, 30S ribosomal protein S4 and 50S ribosomal protein L4, while the down-regulated protein was hydroperoxide reductase subunit C. Moreover, in the strictinin isomers treated group, the esterase activity in the E. coli cells was reduced and the bacteria E. coli became atrophied, pitted and contorted, and the surface of E. coli was rough and blurred.

CONCLUSIONS

According to the above results, the antimicrobial mechanism of strictinin isomers against E. coli were oxidative stress and protein synthesis disorder, which inhibited the activity of the enzymes required for bacterial growth and metabolism. These findings reflected the pleiotropic effects of strictinin isomers, making it a promising antimicrobial agent for pharmaceutical research.

Optimization of Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) of Kinsenoside Compound from Anoectochilus roxburghii (Wall.) Lindl by Response Surface Methodology (RSM)

The purpose of this study was to establish an extraction method for the kinsenoside compound from the whole plant Anoectochilus roxburghii. Ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE) and Ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) method were used to extract and determine the content of kinsenoside, while response surface method (RSM) was used to optimize the extraction process. The best possible range for methanol concentration (0–100%), the liquid-solid ratio (5:1–30:1 mL/g), ultrasonic power (240–540 W), duration of ultrasound (10–50 min), ultrasonic temperature (10–60 °C), and the number of extractions (1–4) were obtained according to the single factor experiments. Then, using the Box-Behnken design (BBD) of response surface analysis, the optimum extraction conditions were obtained with 16.33% methanol concentration, the liquid-solid ratio of 10.83:1 mL/g and 35.00 °C ultrasonic temperature. Under these conditions, kinsenoside extraction yield reached 32.24% dry weight. The best conditions were applied to determine the kinsenoside content in seven different cultivation ages in Anoectochilus roxburghii.

Characterization of the Rosa roxburghii Tratt transcriptome and analysis of MYB genes

Rosa roxburghii Tratt (Rosaceae) has a fruit that is flavorful, economically valuable, and highly nutritious, providing numerous health benefits. Myeloblastosis (MYB) proteins play key roles in the development and fruit quality of R. roxburghii. However, there is little available genomic and transcriptomic information for R. roxburghii. Here, a normalized cDNA library was constructed from five tissues, including the stem, leaf, flower, young fruit, and mature fruit, using the Illumina HiSeq 3000 platform. De novo assembly was performed, and 470.66 million clean reads were obtained. In total, 63,727 unigenes, with an average GC content of 42.08%, were discovered, 60,406 of which were annotated. In addition, 9,354 unigenes were assigned to Gene Ontology categories, and 20,202 unigenes were assigned to 25 Eukaryotic Ortholog Groups. Additionally, 19,508 unigenes were classified into 140 pathways of the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes database. Based on the transcriptome, 163 unigenes associated with MYBs were detected. Among these genes, 75 genes were significantly expressed in the various tissues, including 10 R1 MYB, 42 R2R3 MYB, one R1R2R3 MYB, three R4 MYB and 19 atypical MYB-like proteins. The expression levels of the 12 MYB genes randomly selected for quantitative real-time PCR analysis corroborated the RNA sequencing results. A total of 37,545 microsatellites were detected, with an average expressed sequence tag–simple sequence repeat frequency of 0.59 (37,545/63,727). This transcriptome data improves our understanding of the role of MYB in R. roxburghii and will be valuable for identifying genes of interest.