Bulbil initiation: a comprehensive review on resources, development, and utilisation, with emphasis on molecular mechanisms, advanced technologies, and future prospects

Bulbil is an important asexual reproductive structure of bulbil plants. It mainly grows in leaf axils, leaf forks, tubers and the upper and near ground ends of flower stems of plants. They play a significant role in the reproduction of numerous herbaceous plant species by serving as agents of plant propagation, energy reserves, and survival mechanisms in adverse environmental conditions. Despite extensive research on bulbil-plants regarding their resources, development mechanisms, and utilisation, a comprehensive review of bulbil is lacking, hindering progress in exploiting bulbil resources. This paper provides a systematic overview of bulbil research, including bulbil-plant resources, identification of development stages and maturity of bulbils, cellular and molecular mechanisms of bulbil development, factors influencing bulbil development, gene research related to bulbil development, multi-bulbil phenomenon and its significance, medicinal value of bulbils, breeding value of bulbils, and the application of plant tissue culture technology in bulbil production. The application value of the Temporary Immersion Bioreactor System (TIBS) and Terahertz (THz) in bulbil breeding is also discussed, offering a comprehensive blueprint for further bulbil resource development. Additionally, additive, seven areas that require attention are proposed: (1) Utilization of modern network technologies, such as plant recognition apps or websites, to collect and identify bulbous plant resources efficiently and extensively; (2) Further research on cell and tissue structures that influence bulb cell development; (3) Investigation of the network regulatory relationship between genes, proteins, metabolites, and epigenetics in bulbil development; (4) Exploration of the potential utilization value of multiple sprouts, including medicinal, ecological, and horticultural applications; (5) Innovation and optimization of the plant tissue culture system for bulbils; (6) Comprehensive application research of TIBS for large-scale expansion of bulbil production; (7) To find out the common share genetics between bulbils and flowers.

First Report of Brown Leaf Rot Disease on Dendrobium nobile Caused by Xylaria flabelliformis in Guizhou Province, China

Dendrobium nobile is the largest species of the Orchidaceae family and produces dendrobine, a compound with medicinal properties (Sarsaiya et al., 2020a; Sarsaiya et al., 2024; Qian et al., 2024). The accumulation of dendrobine in D. nobile is regulated by various pathogenic fungi, which directly and indirectly influence dendrobine biosynthesis (Sarsaiya et al., 2019a; Sarsaiya et al., 2019b). In a field planted with D. nobile in Guizhou Province, China, small lesions were initially observed on the upper part of the leaves from May to June 2019, which later developed into larger brown necrotic leaf lesions. Over time, these lesions greatly impacted the medicinal value (dendrobine) and productivity of the plant. A pure culture of Xylaria flabelliformis from infected wild D. nobile leaves was recovered and subsequently cultured on potato dextrose agar (PDA) at 25 °C for 5 days. Xylaria flabelliformis grew slowly and was composed of white mycelia. Colonies were initially white, with a regular margin, and formed stromata that consisted of mycelia sterilia without ascospores. We identified the strain as Xylaria flabelliformis based on its morphological characteristics (Liu et al., 2007) and by sequencing elongation factor-1α (EF-1α). The length of the DNA sequence of EF-1α that was used for the analysis of Xylaria flabelliformis was 1188 bp. BLASTx (nucleotide 6-frame translation-protein) analysis using the National Center for Biotechnology Information database showed that the obtained protein sequence (BLASTx protein accession no.: UTS95822.1, BLASTn nucleotide sequence accession no.: MW508334.1) had the highest similarity (98.21%) with the X. flabelliformis hypothetical protein (TRX95197.1) based on a thorough phylogenetic comparison with other Xylaria species. Healthy D. nobile seedlings were planted in pots and sterilized. The terminal leaves were excised from all pre-sterilised D. nobile seedlings and inoculated with Xylaria flabelliformis mycelial plugs, whereas sterile PDA plugs and moist cotton plugs were used as controls. All seedlings were maintained under optimum temperature and humidity conditions (25 °C and 80%, respectively) for seven days for observation and analysis. All experiments were performed in triplicate. After the incubation period, brown leaf rot lesions were observed for the first time on the inoculated D. nobile leaves, but no symptoms were observed on the leaves of the two control groups (sterile PDA plugs and moist cotton plugs). To complete Koch's postulates, Xylaria flabelliformis was re-isolated and identified from all diseased tissues by DNA sequencing of the EF-1α. It was determined for the first time that Xylaria flabelliformis can cause brown leaf lesions in D. nobile. Moreover, the pathogenicity of Xylaria flabelliformis in D. nobile has not been previously reported (Mead et al., 2019; Meng et al., 2019; Sarsaiya et al., 2019a; Sarsaiya et al., 2020b; Chen et al., 2023; Rinchen, 2023; Cao et al., 2024). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of BLRS lesions in D. nobile leaves caused by Xylaria flabelliformis in Guizhou Province, China. Identification of Xylaria flabelliformis as a pathogen of D. nobile is crucial for advancing effective management and control practices against brown leaf rot disease. This discovery provides valuable insights into the development of targeted strategies to mitigate the impact of Xylaria flabelliformis on D. nobile, safeguard medicinal properties such as dendrobine, and enhance overall productivity.

Enhancing dendrobine production in Dendrobium nobile through mono-culturing of endophytic fungi, Trichoderma longibrachiatum (MD33) in a temporary immersion bioreactor system

Introduction

Dendrobine, a valuable alkaloid found in Dendrobium nobile, possesses significant pharmaceutical potential.

Methods

In this study, we explored innovative approaches to enhance dendrobine production by utilizing endophytic fungi in a Temporary Immersion Bioreactor System (TIBS, Nanjing BioFunction Co. Ltd., China) and traditional test bottles. Dendrobine was unequivocally identified and characterised in D. nobile co-culture seedlings through UHPLC analysis and LC-MS qTOF analysis, supported by reference standards.

Results

The CGTB (control group) and EGTB (experimental group) 12-month-old D. nobile seedlings exhibited similar peak retention times at 7.6±0.1 minutes, with dendrobine identified as C16H25NO2 (molecular weight 264.195). The EGTB, co-cultured with Trichoderma longibrachiatum (MD33), displayed a 2.6-fold dendrobine increase (1804.23 ng/ml) compared to the CGTB (685.95 ng/ml). Furthermore, a bioanalytical approach was applied to investigate the mono-culture of T. longibrachiatum MD33 with or without D. nobile seedlings in test bottles. The newly developed UHPLC-MS method allowed for dendrobine identification at a retention time of 7.6±0.1 minutes for control and 7.6±0.1 minutes for co-culture. Additionally, we explored TIBS to enhance dendrobine production. Co-culturing D. nobile seedlings with Trichoderma longibrachiatum (MD33) in the TIBS system led to a substantial 9.7-fold dendrobine increase (4415.77 ng/ml) compared to the control (454.01 ng/ml) after just 7 days. The comparative analysis of dendrobine concentration between EGTB and EGTIBS highlighted the remarkable potential of TIBS for optimizing dendrobine production. Future research may focus on scaling up the TIBS approach for commercial dendrobine production and investigating the underlying mechanisms for enhanced dendrobine biosynthesis in D. nobile. The structural elucidation of dendrobine was achieved through 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy, revealing a complex array of proton environments and distinct carbon environments, providing essential insights for the comprehensive characterization of the compound.

Discussion

These findings hold promise for pharmaceutical and industrial applications of dendrobine and underline the role of endophytic fungi in enhancing secondary metabolite production in medicinal plants.

Unveiling terahertz wave stress effects and mechanisms in Pinellia ternata: Challenges, insights, and future directions

This review aims to elucidate the intricate effects and mechanisms of terahertz (THz) wave stress on Pinellia ternata, providing valuable insights into plant responses. The primary objective is to highlight the imperative for future research dedicated to comprehending THz wave impacts across plant structures, with a specific focus on the molecular intricacies governing root system structure and function, from shoots to roots. Notably, this review highlights the accelerated plant growth induced by THz waves, especially in conjunction with other environmental stressors, and the subsequent alterations in cellular homeostasis, resulting in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and an increase in brassinosteroids. Brassinosteroids are explored for their dual role as toxic by-products of stress metabolism and vital signal transduction molecules in plant responses to abiotic stresses. The paper further investigates the spatio-temporal regulation and long-distance transport of phytohormones, including growth hormone, cytokinin, and abscisic acid (ABA), which significantly influence the growth and development of P. ternata under THz wave stress. With a comprehensive review of Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and Brassinosteroid Insensitive (BRI) homeostasis and signalling under THz wave stress, the article elucidates the current understanding of BRI involvement in stress perception, stress signalling, and domestication response regulation. Additionally, it underscores the importance of spatio-temporal regulation and long-distance transport of key plant hormones, such as growth hormone, cytokinin, and ABA, in determining root growth and development under THz wave stress. The study of how plants perceive and respond to environmental stresses holds fundamental biological significance, and enhancing plant stress tolerance is crucial for promoting sustainable agricultural practices and mitigating the environmental burdens associated with low-tolerance crop cultivation.

Unraveling the functional consequences of a novel germline missense mutation (R38C) in the yeast model of succinate dehydrogenase subunit B: insights into neurodegenerative disorders

This study explores the implications of a novel germline missense mutation (R38C) in the succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) subunit B, which has been linked to neurodegenerative diseases. The mutation was identified from the SDH mutation database and corresponds to the SDH2R32C allele, mirroring the human SDHBR38C mutation. By subjecting the mutant yeast model to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) stress, simulating oxidative stress, we observed heightened sensitivity to oxidative conditions. Quantitative real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) analysis revealed significant regulation (p < 0.05) of genes associated with antioxidant systems and energy metabolism. Through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis, we examined yeast cell metabolites under oxidative stress, uncovering insights into the potential protective role of o-vanillin. This study elucidates the biological mechanisms underlying cellular oxidative stress responses, offering valuable insights into its repercussions. These findings shed light on innovative avenues for addressing neurodegenerative diseases, potentially revolutionizing therapeutic strategies.

Analysis of the response mechanisms of Pinellia ternata to terahertz wave stresses using transcriptome and metabolic data

Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Breit. (Araceae), a significant medicinal plant, has been used to treat various diseases for centuries. Terahertz radiation (THZ) is located between microwaves and infrared rays on the electromagnetic spectrum. THZ possesses low single-photon energy and a spectral fingerprint, but its effects on plant growth have not yet been investigated. The study's primary objective was to examine the transcriptome and metabolome databases of the SY line to provide a new perspective for identifying genes associated with resistance and growth promotion and comprehending the underlying molecular mechanism. Variations in the biological characteristics of P. ternata grown under control and experimental conditions were analyzed to determine the effect of THZ. Compared with the control group, phenotypic variables such as leaf length, petiole length, number of leaves, leaf petiole diameter, and proliferation coefficient exhibited significant differences. P. ternata response to THZ was analyzed regarding the effects of various coercions on root exudation. The experimental group contained considerably more sugar alcohol than the control group. The transcriptome analysis revealed 1,695 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including 509 upregulated and 1,186 downregulated genes. In the KEGG-enriched plant hormone signaling pathway, there were 19 differentially expressed genes, 13 of which were downregulated and six of which were upregulated. In the metabolomic analysis, approximately 416 metabolites were uncovered. There were 112 DEMs that were downregulated, whereas 148 were upregulated. The P. ternata leaves displayed significant differences in phytohormone metabolites, specifically in brassinolide (BR) and abscisic acid (ABA). The rise in BR triggers alterations in internal plant hormones, resulting in faster growth and development of P. ternata. Our findings demonstrated a link between THZ and several metabolic pathway processes, which will enhance our understanding of P. ternata mechanisms.

Development and mechanical properties of straw-polyethylene imitation rattan material with wheat straw fibre

A new type of imitation rattan was developed via a two-step method that used modified wheat straw as the raw materials and low-density polyethylene to make up wood plastic composite. Post-modification, a graft condensation reaction was carried out between silane as a coupling agent and wheat straw powder, which improved the thermal stability of the composite. A high level of contact and interaction at the fibre-matrix interface was observed. The optimum formula for the first step was 80% wheat straw powder, 4% silane coupling agent, and 16% calcium carbonate, with a modification temperature of 120 °C sustained for 10 min. For the second step, the mechanical properties had been greatly improved with the addition of modified wheat straw fibre and maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MA-g-PP). The use of 10% modified straw fibre and 5% MA-g-PP exhibited the highest tensile strength (8.75 MPa) and highest melt index (2.86 g/10 min). In particular, the MA-g-PP had an extremely advantage to the elastic modulus of wheat straw imitation rattan. The elastic modulus reached the maximum value of 2761.70 MPa at the amount of MA-g-PP added reached 5%. Our present study indicated the innovation of a new type of imitation rattan, which provides a new choice for utilizing wheat straw as industrial raw material, and other agricultural by-products containing liginocellulose could be used in a similar way.

Recovery of value-added products from biowaste: A review

This review provides an update on the state-of-the art technologies for the valorization of solid waste and its mechanism to generate various bio-products. The organic content of these wastes can be easily utilized by the microbes and produce value-added compounds. Microbial fermentation techniques can be utilized for developing waste biorefinery processes. The utilization of lignocellulosic and plastics wastes for the generation of carbon sources for microbial utilization after pre-processing steps will make the process a multi-product biorefinery. The C1 and C2 gases generated from different industries could also be utilized by various microbes, and this will help to control global warming. The review seeks to expand expertise about the potential application through several perspectives, factors influencing remediation, issues, and prospects.

A comprehensive review on recent advancements in biodegradation and sustainable management of biopolymers

Recent years have seen upsurge in plastic manufacturing and its utilization in various fields, such as, packaging, household goods, medical applications, and beauty products. Due to various adverse impacts imposed by synthetic plastics on the health of living well-being and the environment, the biopolymers have been emerged out an alternative. Although, the biopolymers such as polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are entirely degradable. However, the other polymers, such as poly (lactic acid) (PLA) are only partially degradable and often not biosynthesized. Biodegradation of the polymers using microorganisms is considered an effective bioremediation approach. Biodegradation can be performed in aerobic and anaerobic environments. In this context, the present review discusses the biopolymer production, their persistence in the environment, aerobic biodegradation, anaerobic biodegradation, challenges associated with biodegradation and future perspectives. In addition, this review discusses the advancement in the technologies associated with biopolymer production, biodegradation, and their biodegradation standard in different environmental settings. Furthermore, differences in the degradation condition in the laboratory as well as on-site are discussed.

Transcriptome Analysis of Dendrobine Biosynthesis in Trichoderma longibrachiatum MD33

Dendrobine is a representative component of Dendrobium nobile, and its pharmacological effects have been extensively studied. Trichoderma longibrachiatum MD33 was isolated from the stem of Dendrobium nobile which can produce dendrobine. In order to understand the effect of Methyl Jasmonate (MeJA) on the production of dendrobine, transcriptome analysis was performed after MeJA treatment in the MD33 and control groups. The dendrobine production of MeJA (20 μmol/L) treatment group was 44.6% higher than that of control. In this study, the RNA sequencing technology was applied, a total of 444 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the control and MeJA treatment groups, including 226 up-regulated genes and 218 down-regulated genes. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes annotation showed that numbers of DEGs were associated with the putative alkaloid biosynthetic pathway in T Trichoderma longibrachiatum MD33. Several MVA pathway enzyme-coding genes (isopentenyl-diphosphate Delta-isomerase, iphosphomevalonate decarboxylase and farnesyl diphosphate synthase) were found to be differentially expressed, suggesting an active precursor supply for alkaloid biosynthesis after MeJA treatment, in other wise, dendrobine may synthesis through the MVA pathway in MD33. Numerous MeJA-induced P450 family genes, aminotransferase genes and methyltransferase genes were identified, providing several important candidates to further elucidate the dendrobine biosynthetic pathway of T. longibrachiatum MD33. Furthermore, several MeJA-induced transcription factors (TFs) encoding genes were identified, suggesting a complex genetic network affecting the dendrobine in T. longibrachiatum MD33. These findings reveal the regulation mechanism underlying the MeJA-induced accumulation of dendrobine in T. longibrachiatum MD33.

A systematic review on the impact of cement industries on the natural environment

The negative health effects of cement plant exposure are well-known in industrial settings, but they are less well-known among the general public who live near plants. The broad objective of the review was to provide a detailed systematic analysis of the global situation of the cement industry, including generation, pollution, impact on the natural ecosystem, technological and process improvements, sustainable models, the latest laws, challenges, needs, and ways forward. As an initial evaluation, a list of critical keywords was compiled, and a search of all accessible databases was conducted (i.e., Scopus, Web of Knowledge, Google Scholar). The manuscripts published in the journal between 2011 and 2021 were included. According to the findings, India is the second largest cement producer after China, with an installed capacity of 537 million tonnes and around 7.1 percent of the world's production, up from 337.32 million tonnes in 2019. NOx, SOx, CO, CO₂, H₂S, VOCs, dioxins, furans, and particulate matter are all common air pollutants from cement manufacturing. Other sources of dust particles include quarrying, blasting, drilling, trucking, cement plants, fuel production, packaging, path cleaning, and slabs. Other methods of reduction play an important part in decreasing industrial emissions, resulting in lower carbon and more sustainable products. The decision-making trial, in conjunction with the DEMATEL evaluation laboratory and the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) technique, will aid in determining the priority of climate alteration and mitigation options. Furthermore, employing sustainable techniques and technology, switching to alternative fuels will save 12% of total CO₂ emissions by 2050.

Current state of the art biotechnological strategies for conversion of watermelon wastes residues to biopolymers production: A review

Poly-3-hydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are biodegradable and compostable polyesters. This review is aimed to provide a unique approach that can help think tanks to frame strategies aiming for clean technology by utilizing cutting edge biotechnological advances to convert fruit and vegetable waste to biopolymer. A PHA manufacturing method based on watermelon waste residue that does not require extensive pretreatment provides a more environmentally friendly and sustainable approach that utilizes an agricultural waste stream. Incorporating fruit processing industry by-products and water, and other resource conservation methods would not only make the manufacturing of microbial bio-plastics like PHA more eco-friendly, but will also help our sector transition to a bioeconomy with circular product streams. The final and most critical element of this review is an in-depth examination of the several hazards inherent in PHA manufacturing.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis of Genes Involved in Sesquiterpene Alkaloid Biosynthesis in Trichoderma longibrachiatum MD33 and UN32

Trichoderma longibrachiatum MD33, a sesquiterpene alkaloid-producing endophyte isolated from Dendrobium nobile, shows potential medical and industrial applications. To understand the molecular mechanisms of sesquiterpene alkaloids production, a comparative transcriptome analysis was performed on strain MD33 and its positive mutant UN32, which was created using Ultraviolet (UV) mutagenesis and nitrogen ion (N⁺) implantation. The alkaloid production of UN32 was 2.62 times more than that of MD33. One thousand twenty-four differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including 519 up-regulated and 505 down-regulated genes, were identified. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis revealed 139 GO terms and 87 biosynthesis pathways. Dendrobine, arguably the main sesquiterpene alkaloid the strain MD33 produced, might start synthesis through the mevalonate (MVA) pathway. Several MVA pathway enzyme-coding genes (hydroxy-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase, mevalonate kinase, and farnesyl diphosphate synthase) were found to be differentially expressed, suggesting that physical mutagenesis can disrupt genome integrity and gene expression. Some backbone post-modification enzymes and transcript factors were either discovered, suggesting the sesquiterpene alkaloid metabolism in T. longibrachiatum is a complex genetic network. Our findings help to shed light on the underlying molecular regulatory mechanism of sesquiterpene alkaloids production in T. longibrachiatum.

Challenges and opportunities in bioremediation of micro-nano plastics: A review

Rising level of micro-nano plastics (MNPs) in the natural ecosystem adversely impact the health of the environment and living organisms globally. MNPs enter in to the agro-ecosystem, flora and fauna, and human body via trophic transfer, ingestion and inhalation, resulting impediment in blood vessel, infertility, and abnormal behaviors. Therefore, it becomes indispensable to apply a novel approach to remediate MNPs from natural environment. Amongst the several prevailing technologies of MNPs remediation, microbial remediation is considered as greener technology. Microbial degradation of plastics is typically influenced by several biotic as well as abiotic factors, such as enzymatic mechanisms, substrates and co-substrates concentration, temperature, pH, oxidative stress, etc. Therefore, it is pivotal to recognize the key pathways adopted by microbes to utilize plastic fragments as a sole carbon source for the growth and development. In this context, this review critically discussed the role of various microbes and their enzymatic mechanisms involved in biodegradation of MNPs in wastewater (WW) stream, municipal sludge, municipal solid waste (MSW), and composting starting with biological and toxicological impacts of MNPs. Moreover, this review comprehensively discussed the deployment of various MNPs remediation technologies, such as enzymatic, advanced molecular, and bio-membrane technologies in fostering the bioremediation of MNPs from various environmental compartments along with their pros and cons and prospects for future research.

Recent trends and developments on integrated biochemical conversion process for valorization of dairy waste to value added bioproducts: A review

In this review article, discuss the many ways utilized by the dairy sector to treat pollutants, emphasizing their influence on the quality and efficiency with which contamination is removed. It focuses on biotechnology possibilities for valorizing dairy waste in particular. The findings revealed that dairy waste may be treated using physicochemical, biological, and biotechnological techniques. Notably, this article highlighted the possibility of dairy waste being used as a feedstock not only for the generation of biogas, bioethanol, biohydrogen, microbial fuel cells, lactic acid, and fumaric acid via microbial technology but also for the production of biooil and biochar by pyrolysis. In addition, this article critically evaluates the many treatment techniques available for recovering energy and materials from dairy waste, their combinations, and implementation prospects. Valorization of dairy waste streams presents an opportunity to extend the dairy industry's presence in the fermented functional beverage sector.

Transcriptomic analysis of Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Breit T2 plus line provides insights in host responses resist Pectobacterium carotovorum infection

Transcriptome is used to determine the induction response of Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Breit T2 plus line (abbreviated as PT2P line) infected with Pectobacterium carotovorum. The main objective of the study was to deal with the transcriptome database of PT2P line resistance to soft rot pathogens to provide a new perspective for identifying the resistance-related genes and understanding the molecular mechanism. Results indicated that water soaking and tissue collapse started at 20 h after PT2P line was infected by P. carotovorum. A total of 1360 and 5768 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified at 0 h and 20 h, respectively. After 20 h of infection, growth and development-related pathways were inhibited. Meanwhile, DEGs were promoted the colonization of P. carotovorum pathogens in specific cell wall modification processes at the early infected stage. A shift to a defensive response was triggered at 0 h. A large number of DEGs were mainly up-controlled at 20 h and were substantially used in the pathogen recognition and the introduction of signal transformation cascades, secondary metabolites biosynthesis, pathogenic proteins activation, transcription aspects and numerous transporters. Furthermore, our data provided novel insights into the transcript reprogramming of PT2P line in response to P. carotovorum infestation.

Bioengineered biochar as smart candidate for resource recovery toward circular bio-economy: a review

Biochar's ability to mediate and facilitate microbial contamination degradation, as well as its carbon-sequestration potential, has sparked interest in recent years. The scope, possible advantages (economic and environmental), and future views are all evaluated in this review. We go over the many designed processes that are taking place and show why it is critical to look into biochar production for resource recovery and the role of bioengineered biochar in waste recycling. We concentrate on current breakthroughs in the fields of engineered biochar application techniques to systematically and sustainable technology. As a result, this paper describes the use of biomass for biochar production using various methods, as well as its use as an effective inclusion material to increase performance. The impact of biochar amendments on microbial colonisation, direct interspecies electron transfer, organic load minimization, and buffering maintenance is explored in detail. The majority of organic and inorganic (heavy metals) contaminants in the environment today are caused by human activities, such as mining and the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, which can be treated sustainably by using engineered biochar to promote the establishment of a sustainable engineered process by inducing the circular bioeconomy.

Biopolymer poly-hydroxyalkanoates (PHA) production from apple industrial waste residues: A review

Apple pomace, the residue which is left out after processing of apple serves as a potential carbon source for the production of biopolymer, PHA (poly-hydroxyalkanoates). It is rich in carbohydrates, fibers and polyphenols. Utilization of these waste resources has dual societal benefit-waste management and conversion of waste to an eco-friendly biopolymer. This will lower the overall economics of the process. A major limitation for the commercialization of biopolymer in comparison with petroleum derived polymer is the high cost. This article gives an overview of valorization of apple pomace for the production of biopolymer, various strategies adopted, limitations as well as future perspectives.

Production and beneficial impact of biochar for environmental application: A comprehensive review

This review focuses on a holistic view of biochar, production from feedstock's, engineering production strategies, its applications and future prospects. This article reveals a systematic emphasis on the continuation and development of biochar and its production methods such as Physical engineering, chemical and bio-engineering techniques. In addition, biochar alternatives such as nutrient formations and surface area made it a promising cheap source of carbon-based products such as anaerobic digestion, gasification, and pyrolysis, commercially available wastewater treatment, carbons, energy storage, microbial fuel cell electrodes, and super-capacitors repair have been reviewed. This paper also covers the knowledge blanks of strategies and ideas for the future in the field of engineering biochar production techniques and application as well as expand the technology used in the circular bio-economy.

Current research trends on micro- and nano-plastics as an emerging threat to global environment: A review

Micro-and nano-plastics (MNPs) (size < 5 mm/<100 nm) epitomize one of the emergent environmental pollutants with its existence all around the globe. Their high persistence nature and release of chemicals/additives used in synthesis of plastics materials may pose cascading impacts on living organism across the globe. Natural connectivity of all the environmental compartments (terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric) leads to migration/dispersion of MNPs from one compartment to others. Nevertheless, the information on dispersion of MNPs across the environmental compartments and its possible impacts on living organisms are still missing. This review first acquaints with dispersion mechanisms of MNPs in the environment, its polymeric/oligomeric and chemical constituents and then emphasized its impacts on living organism. Based on the existing knowledge about the MNPs' constituent and its potential impacts on the viability, development, lifecycle, movements, and fertility of living organism via several potential mechanisms, such as irritation, oxidative damage, digestion impairment, tissue deposition, change in gut microbial communities' dynamics, impaired fatty acid metabolism, and molecular damage are emphasized. Finally, at the end, the review provided the challenges associated with remediation of plastics pollutions and desirable strategies, policies required along with substantial gaps in MNPs research were recommended for future studies.

Illumina Sequencing Reveals Conserved and Novel MicroRNAs of Dendrobium nobile Protocorm Involved in Synthesizing Dendrobine, a Potential Nanodrug

Emergency of nanoparticulate drug delivery systems has improved the target, bioavailability, and curative effect of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). However, the application of nano-preparation has been limited owing to the low content of active ingredients in part TCM. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulate plant growth, development, and response to environmental stresses at post-transcriptional regulation level by cleavage or translational inhibition. The molecular functions of miRNAs playing a role in synthesizing active comportments at medicinal plants have been widely researched. Dendrobium nobile is a perennial herb in the orchidaceae family. D. nobile protocorm can produce plant-specific metabolites at a short period. Therefore, it is a good substitute for producing metabolites. To understand the functions of miRNAs in D. nobile protocorm, Illumina sequencing of D. nobile protocorm (Dnp), D. officinale protocorm (Dcp), and D. nobile leaf (Dnl) were carried out. A total of 439, 412, and 432 miRNAs were identified from Dnp, Dcp, and Dnl, respectively. Some specific miRNAs were identified among them. Through combing GO and KEGG function annotation, miRNAs mainly involved metabolic pathways, plant hormone signal transduction, biological regulation, and protein binding. Acetyl-CoA acetyltransferase (AACT), mevalonate kinase (MK), 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR), and 2-C-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate cytidylyltransferase (HDS), synthesizing basic precursor isoprene pyrophosphate (IPP) in terpenoid backbone biosynthesis pathway, were predicted as potential targets of 6 different miRNAs. Twenty-six miRNAs participated in auxin, cytokinin, abscisic acid, jasmonic acid, and salicylic acid signal transduction pathway. This report provided valuable candidate genes in Dnp involved in terpenoid biosynthesis and plant hormone signal transduction pathway. At the same time, it can help accelerate the use of dendrobine into nano preparation.

Changes in global Orchidaceae disease geographical research trends: recent incidences, distributions, treatment, and challenges

Many of the Orchidaceae species are threatened due to environmental changes and over exploitation for full fill global demands. The main objective of this article was critically analyzed the recent global distribution of Orchidaceae diversity, its disease patterns, microbial disease identification, detection, along with prevention and challenges. Critical analysis findings revealed that Orchidaceae growth and developments were affected indirectly or directly as a result of complex microbial ecological interactions. Studies have identified many species associated with orchids, some are pathogenic and cause symptoms such as soft rot, brown rot, brown spot, black rot, wilt, foliar, root rot, anthracnose, leaf spot. The review was provided the comprehensive data to evaluate the identification and detection of microbial disease, which is the most important challenge for sustainable cultivation of Orchidaceae diversity. Furthermore, this article is the foremost of disease triggering microbes, orchid relations, and assimilates various consequences that both promoted the considerate and facts of such disease multipart, and will permit the development of best operative disease management practices.

Rapid propagation in vitro and accumulation of active substances of endangered Dendrobium cariniferum Rchb. f

Dendrobium cariniferum is a valuable ornamental and medicinal plant rich with polysaccharides, alkaloid, and other bioactive compounds, which are potential raw materials for pharmacological utilization. In this study, an efficient protocol for the rapid propagation of D. cariniferum was developed. By using the tissue culture protocol, the effects of pH, hormone combinations, temperatures, light intensity, culture time protocorm proliferation, seedlings rooting, and accumulation of biomass with bioactive compounds were investigated. The experiments showed that the medium [1/2 MS + activated carbon1.0 g/L+ agar strip 7.5 g/L + sucrose 25 g/L] effectively promoted the germination of D. cariniferum seeds. The optimal culture conditions were found at pH 5.7, temperature 23 ± 2°C, and light intensity of 1000 Lx in the protocorm proliferation stage. Adding 1.5 g/L peptone in the medium effectively promoted the seedling rooting. The optimal culture conditions for accumulation of bioactive compounds (polysaccharides and alkaloids) of seedlings were found at temperature of 25 ± 2°C, light intensity of 1500–2000 Lx after the 60-day (d). Our study constructed a rapid propagation system in vitro for D. cariniferum, as well as the methods for efficient accumulation of active substances in seedling culture, which will serve as guidance for industrial production of D. cariniferum seedlings for both medicinal raw materials and ornamental plants. In addition, our study provided a new idea that we can directly use the high bioactive compound seedlings to extract medicinal components in industry conditions without transferring to the field.

Metagenomics for taxonomy profiling: tools and approaches

The study of metagenomics is an emerging field that identifies the total genetic materials in an organism along with the set of all genetic materials like deoxyribonucleic acid and ribose nucleic acid, which play a key role with the maintenance of cellular functions. The best part of this technology is that it gives more flexibility to environmental microbiologists to instantly pioneer the immense genetic variability of microbial communities. However, it is intensively complex to identify the suitable sequencing measures of any specific gene that can exclusively indicate the involvement of microbial metagenomes and be able to advance valuable results about these communities. This review provides an overview of the metagenomic advancement that has been advantageous for aggregation of more knowledge about specific genes, microbial communities and its metabolic pathways. More specific drawbacks of metagenomes technology mainly depend on sequence-based analysis. Therefore, this 'targeted based metagenomics' approach will give comprehensive knowledge about the ecological, evolutionary and functional sequence of significantly important genes that naturally exist in living beings either human, animal and microorganisms from distinctive ecosystems.

Resource recovery and circular economy from organic solid waste using aerobic and anaerobic digestion technologies

With the inevitable rise in human population, resource recovery from waste stream is becoming important for a sustainable economy, conservation of the ecosystem as well as for reducing the dependence on the finite natural resources. In this regard, a bio-based circular economy considers organic wastes and residues as potential resources that can be utilized to supply chemicals, nutrients, and fuels needed by mankind. This review explored the role of aerobic and anaerobic digestion technologies for the advancement of a bio-based circular society. The developed routes within the anaerobic digestion domain, such as the production of biogas and other high-value chemicals (volatile fatty acids) were discussed. The potential to recover important nutrients, such as nitrogen through composting, was also addressed. An emphasis was made on the innovative models for improved economics and process performance, which include co-digestion of various organic solid wastes, recovery of multiple bio-products, and integrated bioprocesses.

Bioengineering tools for the production of pharmaceuticals: current perspective and future outlook

The bioengineering tools have significant advantages through less time-consuming and utilized as a promising stage for the production of pharmaceutical bioproducts under the single platform. This review highlighted the advantages and current improvement in the plant, animal and microbial bioengineering tools and outlines feasible approaches by biological and process’s bioengineering levels for advancing the economic feasibility of pharmaceutical’s production. The critical analysis results revealed that system biology and synthetic biology along with advanced bioengineering tools like transcriptome, proteome, metabolome and nano bioengineering tools have shown a promising impact on the development of pharmaceutical’s bioproducts. Tools to overcome and resolve the accompanying encounters of pharmaceutical’s production that include nano bioengineering tools are also discussed. As a summary and prospect, it also gives new insight into the challenges and possible breakthrough of the development of pharmaceutical’s bioproducts through bioengineering tools.

New Insights into Detection of a Dendrobine Compound From a Novel Endophytic Trichoderma longibrachiatum Strain and Its Toxicity Against Phytopathogenic Bacteria

Dendrobium nobile is the only plant that could produce the natural bioactive dendrobine. No other source of dendrobine has been found to date except from D. nobile and via chemical synthesis. In this study, we aimed to examine the potential fungal endophyte isolated from D. nobile stem segments using the molecular method and to detect dendrobine compound through high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), and liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and their metabolite for their antibacterial activity. The potential dendrobine producer strain was recognized as Trichoderma longibrachiatum based on molecular DNA sequencing and GenBank databases. The T. longibrachiatum MD33 produced dendrobine and other compounds in a potato dextrose medium (PDM), as confirmed by HPLC retention time peak analysis. The HPLC results revealed that T. longibrachiatum MD33 biomass showed a peak retention time of 5.28 ± 0.2 min, similar to wild D. nobile stem dendrobine (5.32 ± 0.2 min) and standard chemical reference dendrobine (5.30 ± 0.2 min), indicating the presence of dendrobine in the fungal biomass. Results of GC-MS and LC-MS analysis revealed that T. longibrachiatum MD33 produced the same molecular weight (263 in GC-MS and 264.195 in LC-MS) of dendrobine as compared with standard chemical reference dendrobine and D. nobile dendrobine. Antibacterial activity data revealed that T. longibrachiatum MD33 produced the strongest bactericidal activity against Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus mycoides, and Staphylococcus species, and the diameter of the bacterial growth inhibition zone was 12 ± 0.2, 9 ± 0.2, and 8 ± 0.2 mm, respectively. To the best of our knowledge, this was the first study to investigate T. longibrachiatum as a dendrobine producer, and the results revealed that T. longibrachiatum was directly involved in the potential production of a similar bioactive compound to D. nobile (dendrobine). In addition, the T. longibrachiatum metabolite exhibited potent antibacterial activity and can be a potential strain for medical and industrial purposes.

Phenotypic and Transcriptomic Analysis of Two Pinellia ternata Varieties T2 line and T2Plus line

Pinellia (Pinellia ternata (Thunb.) Breit.), as important medicinal plant, has been used to treat various ailments for a long time. The sixteen ploid plant (2n = 16 * 13 = 208) Pinellia T2Plus line was obtained from an octoploid (2n = 8 * 13 = 104) T2 line by chromosome-doubling technique. Compared with T2 line, the content of various medicinal components (polysaccharide, guanosine, adenosine and ephedrine) was increased in T2Plus line. In this study, the transcriptome of T2 line and T2Plus line were characterized by RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) technology. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways enrichment analysis on differential expressed unigenes (DEGs) revealed that multiple metabolic pathway were enriched significantly, such as 'Starch and sucrose metabolism', 'Purine metabolism', 'Photosynthesis' and six transcription factors (MYB, WRKY, bHLH, lateral organ boundaries domain (LBD), homeodomain-zipper (HD-ZIP) and Ethylene-responsive factor (ERF)) play a key role in difference of transcriptome between T2 line and T2Plus line. These metabolic pathways and transcription factors may play an important role in the difference of medicinal components and epigenetic features between these two Pinellia cultivars. This conclusion provides a robust theoretical basis for the mechanism of the formation of medicinal ingredients in Pinellia cultivars.

Changes in global trends in food waste composting: Research challenges and opportunities

Increasing food waste (FW) generation has put significant pressure on the environment and has increased the global financial costs of its appropriate management. Among the traditional organic waste recycling technologies (i.e., incineration, landfilling and anaerobic digestion), composting is an economically feasible and reliable technology for FW recycling regardless of its technical flaws and social issues. The global scenario of FW generation, technical advancement in FW composting and essential nutrient recovery from organic waste with waste recycling are discussed in this article. Recent research on various strategies to improve FW composting, including co-composting, the addition of organic/inorganic additives, the mitigation of gaseous emission, and microbiological variations are comprehensively explained. Subsequently, it is shown that the performing FW composting in an existing mechanical facility can improve organic waste degradation and produce value-added mature compost to save on costs and increase the technological feasibility and viability of FW composting to some extent.

Callus growth kinetics and accumulation of secondary metabolites of Bletilla striata Rchb.f. using a callus suspension culture

Bletilla striata is an endangered traditional Chinese medicinal plant with multiple uses and a slow regeneration rate of its germplasm resources. To evaluate the callus growth kinetics and accumulation of secondary metabolites (SMs), a callus suspension culture was proven to be a valuable approach for acquiring high yields of medicinal compounds. An effective callus suspension culture for obtaining B. striata callus growth and its SMs was achieved with the in vitro induction of calluses from B. striata seeds. The callus growth kinetics and accumulation of SMs were analyzed using a mathematical model. The resulting callus growth kinetic model revealed that the growth curves of B. striata suspension-cultured calluses were sigmoidal, indicating changes in the growth of the suspension-cultured calluses. Improved Murashige and Skoog callus growth medium was the most favorable medium for B. striata callus formation, with the highest callus growth occurring during the stationary phase of the cultivation period. Callus growth acceleration started after 7 days and thereafter gradually decreased until day 24 of the cultivation period and reached its highest at day 36 period in both the dry weight and fresh weight analyses. The coelonin concentration peaked during the exponential growth stage and decreased afterward during the stationary stage of the callus suspension culture. The maximum content of coelonin (approximately 0.3323 mg/g callus dry weight) was observed on the 18th day of the cultivation cycle, while dactylorhin A and militarine reached the highest concentrations at day 24, and p-hydroxybenzyl alcohol at day 39. This investigation also laid a foundation for a multimathematical model to better describe the accumulation variation of SMs. The production of SMs showed great specificity during callus growth and development. This research provided a well-organized way to increase the accumulation and production of SMs during the scaled-up biosynthesis of calluses in B. striata callus suspension cultures.

A review of plant leaf fungal diseases and its environment speciation

There is increasing difficulty in identifying new plant leaf diseases as a result of environmental change. There is a need to identify the factors influencing the emergence and the increasing incidences of these diseases. Here, we present emerging fungal plant leaf diseases and describe their environmental speciation. We considered the factors controlling for local adaptation associated with environmental speciation. We determined that the advent of emergent fungal leaf diseases is closely connected to environmental speciation. Fungal pathogens targeting the leaves may adversely affect the entire plant body. To mitigate the injury caused by these pathogens, it is necessary to be able to detect and identify them early in the infection process. In this way, their distribution, virulence, incidence, and severity could be attenuated.

New insights and rethinking of cinnabar for chemical and its pharmacological dynamics

Cinnabar is an attractive mineral with many different uses. It is reported that cinnabar is one of the traditional Chinese’s medicines extensively use. The main objective of this critical review is to identify the current overview, concept and chemistry of cinnabar, which includes the process developments, challenges, and diverse options for pharmacology research. It is used as a medicine through probable toxicity, especially when taking overdoes. This review is the first to describe the toxicological effects of cinnabar and its associated compounds. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) dependent metabolomics could be useful for examination of the pharmaceutical consequence. The analysis indicated that the accurate preparation methods, appropriate doses, disease status, ages with drug combinations are significant factors for impacting the cinnabar toxicity. Toxicologically, synthetic mercury sulfide or cinnabar should be notable for mercuric chloride, mercury vapor and methyl mercury for future protection and need several prominent advancements in cinnabar research.

Improving the properties of straw biomass rattan by corn starch

As a kind of renewable resource and natural biomass, starch has been widely used to substitute plastics in the modern industry and is regarded as one of the most promising biodegradable materials. The newly developmental rattan, straw biomass rattan (SBR) as weaving material, has been exploited as per our previous work, which possessed advantages of both natural rattan and pure plastic rattan. The main objective of the work was to improve the properties of SBR by corn starch (CS). Based on the manufacturing of the above composites, the experiments of SBR that enhanced with CS on mechanical properties, melting performance, hydroscopicity, thermogravimetric analysis, and microstructures were tested in this study. The results revealed that when the content of CS increased gradually within the range of 0, 3, 6, 9 12, and 15 wt.%, the mechanical properties and melt index of the composite both increased first and then decreased, with 6 to 12 wt.% as the optimal dosage range. In contrast, the water absorption of SBR kept increased in this range, indicating an easier biodegradable. With CS added, the microstructure of SBR was examined by scanning electron microscope and found the microscopic surfaces and sections to become smoother, and that could improve the compatibility and tenacity between the materials. As a result, CS in moderation can be used as a supplement to enhance SBR, and improve their characteristics which will enhance the mechanical properties of the composites for future perspectives.

Microbial dynamics for lignocellulosic waste bioconversion and its importance with modern circular economy, challenges and future perspectives

An extensive use of microbial dynamics for utilizing the lignocellulosic wastes has been attributed to their efficiency in bioenergy and bioproducts development as a cost effective high nutritional value. The integration of lignocellulosic waste into the circular economy can scaleup the sustainable bioproducts and bioenergy development. In this review paper, the aim is to describe the existing research efforts on organic lignocellulosic waste, cellulase producing microbes, their potential enzyme, modern circular economy with associated challenges and future perspectives. Presently, it has been reviewed that microbial cellulases have provided treasure bioproducts visions into industrial bioproducts marvels unveiled through lignocellulosic waste cutting-edge microbial explorations. Furthermore, the review focused on new insights of the growing circular economy of lignocellulosic waste used for many bioproducts and bioenergy dealings and explored the emergent lignocellulosic biorefinery approaches which could then be applied to review industrial-scale sustainable economic models for upgraded bioproducts and other production associated problems.

Preparation and characterization of coffee hull fiber for reinforcing application in thermoplastic composites

Nowadays, there is an increasing concern toward substituting the scarce wood fibers with alternative lignocellulosic fibers that originate from crop residue to reinforce biocomposites. In this paper, the potential application of coffee hull (CH) of the reinforced polyethylene (PE) matrix composites was studied for the first time. Experiments of composite that enhanced with CH on mechanical properties, hydroscopicity, thermogravimetric analysis, fiber treatment, and microstructures were tested in this study. The PE matrix was reinforced with varying volume fractions of CH and was studied. The results show that incorporation of coffee hull markedly improved the mechanical properties of the reinforced high-density polyethylene (HDPE) matrix composites. Micrographs show a strong interfacial adhesion between the CH fiber particles. This property may be the main reason for the stability between composites. At the same time this work investigated the effect of different treatments on the mechanical properties and water absorption behavior of composites. The fiber surface treatments were done using active chemicals such as calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), silane coupling agent (SCA), maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (MA-g-PP), stearic acid (SA), ethylene bis stearamide (EBS) and the combination (MA-g-PP, SA, EBS). The results show that (Ca(OH)₂)treatment is the best way to improve its properties. Probably because attributed to removal of surface active functional groups (-OH) from the CH fiber and induction of hydrophobicity that in turn improved the compatibility with the polymer matrix. As a result, the use of coffee hull in composites could have great significance for the industry.

A comprehensive review on fungal endophytes and its dynamics on Orchidaceae plants: current research, challenges, and future possibilities

In the development of medicinally important Orchidaceae, the extent of fungal endophytes specificity is not presently very clear. Limited study has been available on natural products formed and its role on plant growth, defence mechanism by endophytes, and to characterize the chief treasure of bioactive molecules. Therefore, this review article presents an evaluation of the endophytes associated with Orchidaceae for physiology, metabolism, and genomics which have prominently contributed to the resurgence of novel metabolite research increasing our considerate of multifaceted mechanisms regulatory appearance of biosynthetic gene groups encoding diverse metabolites. Additionally, we presented the comprehensive recent development of bio-strategies for the cultivation of endophytes from Orchidaceae and integration of bioengineered ‘Genomics with metabolism’ approaches with emphases collective omics as powerful approach to discover novel metabolite compounds. The Orchidaceae-fungal endophytes' biodynamics for sustainable development of bioproducts and its applications are supported in large-scale biosynthesis of industrially and pharmaceutical important biomolecules.

The anti-diabetic activities, gut microbiota composition, the anti-inflammatory effects of Scutellaria-coptis herb couple against insulin resistance-model of diabetes involving the toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Scutellaria-coptis herb couple (SC) is one of the well-known herb couples in many traditional Chinese compound formulas used for the treatment of diabetes mellitus (DM), which has been used to treat DM for thousands of years in China.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Few studies have confirmed in detail the anti-diabetic activities of SC in vivo and in vitro. The present investigations aimed to evaluate the anti-diabetic activity of SC in type 2 diabetic KK-Ay mice and in RAW264.7 macrophages to understand its possible mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

High-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection (HPLC-UV) and LC-LTQ-Orbitrap Pro mass spectrometry were used to analyze the active ingredients of SC extracts and control the quality. A type 2 diabetic KK-Ay mice model was established by high-fat diet. Body weight, fasting blood glucose levels, fasting blood insulin levels, glycosylated hemoglobin and glycosylated serum protein were measured. The effects of SC on total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and triglyceride (TG) levels were examined. The lipopolysaccharide (LPS), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) levels were measured. Gut microbial communities were assayed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) methods. The expressions of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and MyD88 protein in the colons were measured by western blot. In RAW264.7 macrophages, IL-6, TNF-α, TLR4 and MyD88 protein levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits or western blot, and the mRNA expression of IL-6, TNF-α and TLR4 was examined by the real time PCR.

RESULTS

The present results showed that the SC significantly increased blood HDL and significantly reduced fasting blood glucose, fasting blood insulin, glycosylated hemoglobin, glycosylated serum protein, TC, TG, LPS, IL-6 and TNF-α levels (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01) in type-2 diabetic KK-Ay mice. Furthermore, SC could regulate the structure of intestinal flora. Additionally, the expressions of TLR4 and MyD88 protein in the colons were significantly decreased in the model group (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01). However, SC had no significant effect on weight gain. In RAW264.7 macrophages, SC containing serum (SC-CS) (5%, 10% and 20%) significantly decreased IL-6, TNF-α, TLR4 and MyD88 protein levels and the mRNA expression of IL-6, TNF-α and TLR4 (P < 0.05 or P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The anti-diabetic effects of SC were attributed to its regulation of intestinal flora and anti-inflammation involving the TLR4 signaling pathway. These findings provide a new insight into the anti-diabetic application for SC in clinical settings and display the potential of SC in the treatment of DM.

Improving methane yield and quality via co-digestion of cow dung mixed with food waste

Methane (CH₄) production and quality were enhanced by the co-digestion of cow dung and food waste (FW) mixed with organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW) under optimized conditions in bench and semi continuous-scale mode for a period of 30 days. A bacterium capable of high yield of CH₄ was enriched and isolated by employing activated sewage sludge as the inoculums. The thirteen bacterial isolates were identified through morphological and biochemical tests. Gas chromatography was used to analyze the chemical compositions of the generated biogas. CH₄ yields were significantly higher during co-digestion of Run II (7.59 L) than Run I (3.7 L). Therefore, the co-digestion of FW with OFMSW and Run II was observed to be a competent method for biogas conversion from organic waste resources.

The dynamic of cellulase activity of fungi inhabiting organic municipal solid waste

The study dealt with to identified and screened out potential cellulase producing fungal strains. All the indigenous fungal strains were developed on carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) mandel media at 30 °C for 3-4 days to examine their congo red cellulase activity. It was found from the primary screening test result that only four isolates Trichoderma viride, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus and Fusarium oxysporum were shown large zone formation that meant they have great potential cellulase activity. Among these, Trichoderma viride and Aspergillus niger strains were showed highest enzymatic activity during the secondary screening, while Trichoderma viride generated the highest protein (89.51 μg/ml). Furthermore, these potential fungal strains will be useful for the organic municipal solid waste degradation.