1
|
Khan NZ, Ali A, Ali W, Aasim M, Khan T, Khan Z, Munir I. Heterologous expression of bacterial dehydrin gene in Arabidopsis thaliana promotes abiotic stress tolerance. PHYSIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF PLANTS : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 29:1239-1246. [PMID: 38024953 PMCID: PMC10678877 DOI: 10.1007/s12298-023-01358-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Salinity, low temperature, and drought are major environmental factors in agriculture leading to reduced crop yield. Dehydrins (DHNs) are induced transcriptionally during cellular dehydration and accumulate in different tissues during abiotic stresses. Here we isolated and characterized a bacterial gene BG757 in Arabidopsis, encoding a putative dehydrin type protein. ABA induces the expression of various dehydrins in plants, therefore, to elucidate the potential role, ABA sensitivity was examined in Arabidopsis transgenic lines expressing BG757. Interestingly, BG757-expressing plants showed hypersensitivity towards NaCl and ABA during seed germination. In addition to germination, BG757-expressing plants also showed root growth retardation in the presence of ABA and NaCl when compared with wild type (WT), suggesting that BG757 positively regulate salt stress and ABA response. Furthermore, BG757-expressing plants showed significant drought tolerance compared with WT. Consistent with drought tolerance, expression levels of stress inducible genes (DREB2A, RD22, RD26, LEA7 and SOS1) were strongly upregulated in transgenic plants compared with WT. All together these results suggest that heterologous expression of bacterial gene, BG757 in plants promotes resistance to environmental stresses. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12298-023-01358-w.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nadir Zaman Khan
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Malakand, Chakdara, Pakistan
| | - Akhtar Ali
- Department of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul, 05029 South Korea
- Department Molecular Stress Physiology, Center of Plant Systems Biology and Biotechnology, 4000 Plovdiv, Bulgaria
| | - Waqar Ali
- Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, The University of Agriculture Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Aasim
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Malakand, Chakdara, Pakistan
| | - Tariq Khan
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Malakand, Chakdara, Pakistan
| | - Zaryab Khan
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Malakand, Chakdara, Pakistan
| | - Iqbal Munir
- Institute of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, The University of Agriculture Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Shaito A, Thuan DTB, Phu HT, Nguyen THD, Hasan H, Halabi S, Abdelhady S, Nasrallah GK, Eid AH, Pintus G. Herbal Medicine for Cardiovascular Diseases: Efficacy, Mechanisms, and Safety. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:422. [PMID: 32317975 PMCID: PMC7155419 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.00422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a significant health burden with an ever-increasing prevalence. They remain the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. The use of medicinal herbs continues to be an alternative treatment approach for several diseases including CVDs. Currently, there is an unprecedented drive for the use of herbal preparations in modern medicinal systems. This drive is powered by several aspects, prime among which are their cost-effective therapeutic promise compared to standard modern therapies and the general belief that they are safe. Nonetheless, the claimed safety of herbal preparations yet remains to be properly tested. Consequently, public awareness should be raised regarding medicinal herbs safety, toxicity, potentially life-threatening adverse effects, and possible herb–drug interactions. Over the years, laboratory data have shown that medicinal herbs may have therapeutic value in CVDs as they can interfere with several CVD risk factors. Accordingly, there have been many attempts to move studies on medicinal herbs from the bench to the bedside, in order to effectively employ herbs in CVD treatments. In this review, we introduce CVDs and their risk factors. Then we overview the use of herbs for disease treatment in general and CVDs in particular. Further, data on the ethnopharmacological therapeutic potentials and medicinal properties against CVDs of four widely used plants, namely Ginseng, Ginkgo biloba, Ganoderma lucidum, and Gynostemma pentaphyllum, are gathered and reviewed. In particular, the employment of these four plants in the context of CVDs, such as myocardial infarction, hypertension, peripheral vascular diseases, coronary heart disease, cardiomyopathies, and dyslipidemias has been reviewed, analyzed, and critically discussed. We also endeavor to document the recent studies aimed to dissect the cellular and molecular cardio-protective mechanisms of the four plants, using recently reported in vitro and in vivo studies. Finally, we reviewed and reported the results of the recent clinical trials that have been conducted using these four medicinal herbs with special emphasis on their efficacy, safety, and toxicity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah Shaito
- Department of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Lebanese International University, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Duong Thi Bich Thuan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, Hue City, Vietnam
| | - Hoa Thi Phu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, Hue City, Vietnam
| | - Thi Hieu Dung Nguyen
- Department of Physiology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, Hue City, Vietnam
| | - Hiba Hasan
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany
| | - Sarah Halabi
- Biology Department, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Samar Abdelhady
- Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Gheyath K Nasrallah
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Ali H Eid
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Gianfranco Pintus
- Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Isolation, Expression, and Promoter Analysis of GbWRKY2: A Novel Transcription Factor Gene from Ginkgo biloba. Int J Genomics 2015; 2015:607185. [PMID: 26351628 PMCID: PMC4553201 DOI: 10.1155/2015/607185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2015] [Revised: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
WRKY transcription factor is involved in multiple life activities including plant growth and development as well as biotic and abiotic responses. We identified 28 WRKY genes from transcriptome data of Ginkgo biloba according to conserved WRKY domains and zinc finger structure and selected three WRKY genes, which are GbWRKY2, GbWRKY16, and GbWRKY21, for expression pattern analysis. GbWRKY2 was preferentially expressed in flowers and strongly induced by methyl jasmonate. Here, we cloned the full-length cDNA and genomic DNA of GbWRKY2. The full-length cDNA of GbWRKY2 was 1,713 bp containing a 1,014 bp open reading frame encoding a polypeptide of 337 amino acids. The GbWRKY2 genomic DNA had one intron and two exons. The deduced GbWRKY2 contained one WRKY domain and one zinc finger motif. GbWRKY2 was classified into Group II WRKYs. Southern blot analysis revealed that GbWRKY2 was a single copy gene in G. biloba. Many cis-acting elements related to hormone and stress responses were identified in the 1,363 bp-length 5'-flanking sequence of GbWRKY2, including W-box, ABRE-motif, MYBCOREs, and PYRIMIDINE-boxes, revealing the molecular mechanism of upregulated expression of GbWRKY2 by hormone and stress treatments. Further functional characterizations in transiently transformed tobacco leaves allowed us to identify the region that can be considered as the minimal promoter.
Collapse
|
4
|
Cao F, Cheng H, Cheng S, Li L, Xu F, Yu W, Yuan H. Expression of selected Ginkgo biloba heat shock protein genes after cold treatment could be induced by other abiotic stress. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:5768-5788. [PMID: 22754330 PMCID: PMC3382825 DOI: 10.3390/ijms13055768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2012] [Revised: 04/26/2012] [Accepted: 05/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Heat shock proteins (HSPs) play various stress-protective roles in plants. In this study, three HSP genes were isolated from a suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) cDNA library of Ginkgo biloba leaves treated with cold stress. Based on the molecular weight, the three genes were designated GbHSP16.8, GbHSP17 and GbHSP70. The full length of the three genes were predicted to encode three polypeptide chains containing 149 amino acids (Aa), 152 Aa, and 657 Aa, and their corresponding molecular weights were predicted as follows: 16.67 kDa, 17.39 kDa, and 71.81 kDa respectively. The three genes exhibited distinctive expression patterns in different organs or development stages. GbHSP16.8 and GbHSP70 showed high expression levels in leaves and a low level in gynoecia, GbHSP17 showed a higher transcription in stamens and lower level in fruit. This result indicates that GbHSP16.8 and GbHSP70 may play important roles in Ginkgo leaf development and photosynthesis, and GbHSP17 may play a positive role in pollen maturation. All three GbHSPs were up-regulated under cold stress, whereas extreme heat stress only caused up-regulation of GbHSP70, UV-B treatment resulted in up-regulation of GbHSP16.8 and GbHSP17, wounding treatment resulted in up-regulation of GbHSP16.8 and GbHSP70, and abscisic acid (ABA) treatment caused up-regulation of GbHSP70 primarily.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fuliang Cao
- Economic Forest Germplasm Improvement and Comprehensive Utilization of Resources of Hubei Key Laboratory, Huanggang Normal University, Huanggang 438000, China; E-Mails: (H.C.); (L.L.); (F.X.)
- College of Forest Resources and Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; E-Mail:
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (F.C.); (S.C.); Tel./Fax: +86-713-8833599 (S.C.)
| | - Hua Cheng
- Economic Forest Germplasm Improvement and Comprehensive Utilization of Resources of Hubei Key Laboratory, Huanggang Normal University, Huanggang 438000, China; E-Mails: (H.C.); (L.L.); (F.X.)
- College of Forest Resources and Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; E-Mail:
- College of Chemistry and life science, Huanggang Normal University, Huanggang 438000, China; E-Mail:
| | - Shuiyuan Cheng
- Economic Forest Germplasm Improvement and Comprehensive Utilization of Resources of Hubei Key Laboratory, Huanggang Normal University, Huanggang 438000, China; E-Mails: (H.C.); (L.L.); (F.X.)
- College of Forest Resources and Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; E-Mail:
- College of Chemistry and life science, Huanggang Normal University, Huanggang 438000, China; E-Mail:
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (F.C.); (S.C.); Tel./Fax: +86-713-8833599 (S.C.)
| | - Linling Li
- Economic Forest Germplasm Improvement and Comprehensive Utilization of Resources of Hubei Key Laboratory, Huanggang Normal University, Huanggang 438000, China; E-Mails: (H.C.); (L.L.); (F.X.)
- College of Chemistry and life science, Huanggang Normal University, Huanggang 438000, China; E-Mail:
| | - Feng Xu
- Economic Forest Germplasm Improvement and Comprehensive Utilization of Resources of Hubei Key Laboratory, Huanggang Normal University, Huanggang 438000, China; E-Mails: (H.C.); (L.L.); (F.X.)
| | - Wanwen Yu
- College of Forest Resources and Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; E-Mail:
| | - Honghui Yuan
- College of Chemistry and life science, Huanggang Normal University, Huanggang 438000, China; E-Mail:
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Vaseva II, Grigorova BS, Simova-Stoilova LP, Demirevska KN, Feller U. Abscisic acid and late embryogenesis abundant protein profile changes in winter wheat under progressive drought stress. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2010; 12:698-707. [PMID: 20701692 DOI: 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2009.00269.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Three varieties (cv. Pobeda, Katya and Sadovo) of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum), differing in their agronomic characteristics, were analysed during progressive soil water stress and recovery at early vegetation stages. Changes in abscisic acid content, SDS-PAGE and immunoblot profiles of proteins that remained soluble upon heating were monitored. Initially higher ABA content in control Pobeda and Katya corresponded to earlier expression of the studied late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) proteins. A combination of higher ABA content, early immunodetection of dehydrins, and a significant increase of WZY2 transcript levels were observed in drought-stressed leaves of the tolerant variety Katya. One-step RT-PCR analyses of some acidic dehydrin genes (WCOR410b, TADHN) documented their relatively constant high expression levels in leaves under drought stress during early vegetative development. Neutral WZY2 dehydrin, TaLEA2 and TaLEA3 transcripts accumulated gradually with increasing water deficit. Delayed expression of TaLEA2 and TaLEA3 genes was found in the least drought-tolerant wheat, Sadovo. The expression profile of WZY2 revealed two distinct and separate bands, suggesting alternative splicing, which altered as water stress increased.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I I Vaseva
- Institute of Plant Physiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia, Bulgaria.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Mingeot D, Dauchot N, Van Cutsem P, Watillon B. Characterisation of two cold induced dehydrin genes from Cichorium intybus L. Mol Biol Rep 2009; 36:1995-2001. [PMID: 19002602 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-008-9410-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2008] [Accepted: 10/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Two dehydrin genes were identified from a Cichorium intybus EST database. They were among the most abundant sequences obtained from 10 cDNA libraries constructed from chicory roots grown under field conditions. The full length cDNA sequences, designated CiDHN1 and CiDHN2, were 1,176 and 1,055 bp long and encoded predicted polypeptides of 262 and 261 amino acids, respectively. The deduced CiDHN1 protein contains a S-segment and four lysine-rich consensus motifs (K-segments) which represent a typical SK(4) structure of dehydrins. The CiDHN2 sequence contains two Y motifs and two K-segments classifying CiDHN2 as Y(2)K(2)-type dehydrin. Southern-blotting analysis suggested that CiDHN1 and CiDHN2 are single copy genes. Northern-blotting analysis revealed that both CiDHN genes are expressed in roots and leaves, with seasonal variations in transcript accumulation. The effect of cold on the CiDHN1 and CiDHN2 transcript level was demonstrated. CiDHN1 and CiDHN2 promoter analysis revealed the presence of low temperature-responsive and ABA-responsive elements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Mingeot
- Biotechnology Department, Centre wallon de Recherches agronomiques, Chaussée de Charleroi 234, Gembloux, Belgium.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
de Graaf R, Tintu A, Stassen F, Kloppenburg G, Bruggeman C, Rouwet E. N-acetylcysteine prevents neointima formation in experimental venous bypass grafts. Br J Surg 2009; 96:941-50. [DOI: 10.1002/bjs.6659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background
Neointima formation, mainly characterized by smooth muscle cell proliferation, is an important cause of venous bypass graft failure. The therapeutic potential of the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC) to attenuate smooth muscle cell proliferation and neointima formation was examined in vivo. The effects of NAC on hyperoxia-induced venous smooth muscle cell (VSMC) cytokine production and proliferation were addressed in vitro.
Methods
Rats underwent autologous epigastric vein-to-femoral artery interposition grafting. Fourteen rats received oral NAC, and a similar control group received saline. Histomorphometric analysis was performed after 7 days or 3 weeks. Cytokine analysis and cell proliferation assay were performed in cultured human VSMCs after hyperoxic or normoxic exposure and NAC administration.
Results
NAC-treated rats displayed a threefold reduction in neointimal area, a sixfold reduction in stenosis rate, and a twofold reduction in VSMC proliferation after vein graft surgery. Incubation of VSMCs in 70 per cent oxygen stimulated the release of mitogenic inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL) 6 and IL-8. Cytokine-rich medium from these VSMCs induced proliferation of normoxic VSMCs. NAC inhibited hyperoxia-induced cytokine release and VSMC proliferation.
Conclusion
NAC attenuated neointima formation and vein graft stenosis by reducing VSMC proliferation in vivo, and prevented hyperoxia-induced cytokine production and VSMC proliferation in vitro.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R de Graaf
- Department of Surgery, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, University of Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Radiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, University of Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - A Tintu
- Department of Surgery, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, University of Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - F Stassen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, University of Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - G Kloppenburg
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, University of Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - C Bruggeman
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, University of Maastricht, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - E Rouwet
- Department of Surgery, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Surgery, Atrium Medical Centre Parkstad, Heerlen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Bassett CL, Wisniewski ME, Artlip TS, Richart G, Norelli JL, Farrell RE. Comparative expression and transcript initiation of three peach dehydrin genes. PLANTA 2009; 230:107-18. [PMID: 19360436 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-009-0927-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2008] [Accepted: 03/16/2009] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Dehydrin genes encode proteins with demonstrated cryoprotective and antifreeze activity, and they respond to a variety of abiotic stress conditions that have dehydration as a common component. Two dehydrins from peach (Prunus persica L. [Batsch.]) have been previously characterized; here, we describe the characterization of a third dehydrin from peach bark, PpDhn3, isolated by its response to low temperature. The expression of all three dehydrin genes was profiled by semi-quantitative reverse transcription PCR, and transcript initiation was mapped for all three genes using the RNA ligase-mediated 5' rapid amplification of cDNA ends technique. PpDhn3 transcripts from bark collected in December or July, as well as transcripts from developing fruit, initiated at a single site. Although most of the PpDhn1 transcripts initiated at a similar position, those from young fruit initiated much further upstream of the consensus TATA box. Bark and fruit transcripts encoding PpDhn2 initiated ca. 30 bases downstream of a consensus TATA box; however, transcripts from ripe fruit initiated further upstream. Ripe fruit transcripts of PpDhn2 contain a 5' leader intron which is predicted to add some 34 amino acids to the N-terminal methionine of the cognate protein when properly processed. Secondary structure prediction of sequences surrounding the TATA box suggests that conformational transitions associated with decreasing temperature contribute to the regulation of expression of the cold-responsive dehydrin genes. Taken together these results reveal new, unexpected levels of gene regulation contributing to the overall expression pattern of peach dehydrins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carole Leavel Bassett
- USDA, ARS, Appalachian Fruit Research Station, 2217 Wiltshire Road, Kearneysville, WV 25430, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Gao C, Wang Y, Liu G, Yang C, Jiang J, Li H. Expression profiling of salinity-alkali stress responses by large-scale expressed sequence tag analysis in Tamarix hispid. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 66:245-58. [PMID: 18058243 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-007-9266-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2007] [Accepted: 11/14/2007] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Tamarix hispida, a woody halophyte, thrives in saline and saline-alkali soil. To better understand the gene expression profiles that manifest in response to saline-alkali stress, three cDNA libraries were constructed from leaf tissue of T. hispida plants that were well watered and exposed to NaHCO3 for 24 and 52 h. A total of 9,447 high quality expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were obtained from the three libraries. These ESTs represent 3,945 unigenes, including 986 contigs and 2,959 singlets. The numbers of unigenes obtained from the three libraries were 1,752, 1,558 and 1,675, respectively. The EST analysis was performed to compare gene expression in the three cDNA libraries; the transcripts responsive to NaHCO3 were identified. The differentially expressed transcripts were identified. The up-regulation genes were involved in a variety function areas, such as stress-related proteins, hormone signaling transduction, antioxidative response, transcriptional regulators, protein synthesis and destination, ion homeostasis, photosynthesis and metabolism. The results indicated that the response to NaHCO3 in T. hispida is a complex one, involving multiple physiological and metabolic pathways. Nine gene expression patterns were compared in response to NaHCO3 and NaCl using real time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Gene expression trends were similar after a 24-h exposure to either NaCl or NaHCO3, however, great variability was found after a 52-h exposure, indicating that short-term responses to either salt may not be obviously different.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caiqiu Gao
- Heilongjiang Key Laboratory of Forest Tree Genetics and Breeding, Northeast Forestry University, Hexing Road 26, Harbin 150040, China
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|