RNA interference-based therapy and its delivery systems

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps: A Crucial Factor in Post-Surgical Abdominal Adhesion Formation

Post-surgical abdominal adhesions, although poorly understood, are highly prevalent. The molecular processes underlying their formation remain elusive. This review aims to assess the relationship between neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and the generation of postoperative peritoneal adhesions and to discuss methods for mitigating peritoneal adhesions. A keyword or medical subject heading (MeSH) search for all original articles and reviews was performed in PubMed and Google Scholar. It included studies assessing peritoneal adhesion reformation after abdominal surgery from 2003 to 2023. After assessing for eligibility, the selected articles were evaluated using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme checklist for qualitative research. The search yielded 127 full-text articles for assessment of eligibility, of which 7 studies met our criteria and were subjected to a detailed quality review using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) checklist. The selected studies offer a comprehensive analysis of adhesion pathogenesis with a special focus on the role of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in the development of peritoneal adhesions. Current interventional strategies are examined, including the use of mechanical barriers, advances in regenerative medicine, and targeted molecular therapies. In particular, this review emphasizes the potential of NET-targeted interventions as promising strategies to mitigate postoperative adhesion development. Evidence suggests that in addition to their role in innate defense against infections and autoimmune diseases, NETs also play a crucial role in the formation of peritoneal adhesions after surgery. Therefore, therapeutic strategies that target NETs are emerging as significant considerations for researchers. Continued research is vital to fully elucidate the relationship between NETs and post-surgical adhesion formation to develop effective treatments.

HER2 siRNA Facilitated Gene Silencing Coupled with Doxorubicin Delivery: A Dual Responsive Nanoplatform Abrogates Breast Cancer

The present study investigated the concurrent delivery of antineoplastic drug, doxorubicin, and HER2 siRNA through a targeted theranostic metallic gold nanoparticle designed using polysaccharide, PSP001. The as-synthesized HsiRNA@PGD NPs were characterized in terms of structural, functional, physicochemical, and biological properties. HsiRNA@PGD NPs exposed adequate hydrodynamic size, considerable ζ potential, and excellent drug/siRNA loading and encapsulation efficiency. Meticulous exploration of the biocompatible dual-targeted nanoconjugate exhibited an appealing biocompatibility and pH-sensitive cargo release kinetics, indicating its safety for use in clinics. HsiRNA@PGD NPs deciphered competent cancer cell internalization, enhanced cytotoxicity mediated via the induction of apoptosis, and excellent downregulation of the overexpressing target HER2 gene. Further in vivo explorations in the SKBR3 xenograft breast tumor model revealed the appealing tumor reduction properties, selective accumulation in the tumor site followed by significant suppression of the HER2 gene which contributed to the exclusive abrogation of breast tumor mass by the HsiRNA@PGD NPs. Compared to free drugs or the monotherapy constructs, the dual delivery approach produced a synergistic suppression of breast tumors both in vitro and in vivo. Hence the drawings from these findings implicate that the as-synthesized HsiRNA@PGD NPs could offer a promising platform for chemo-RNAi combinational breast cancer therapy.

Integrative bioinformatics and experimental validation of hub genetic markers in acne vulgaris: Toward personalized diagnostic and therapeutic strategies

BACKGROUND

Acne vulgaris is a widespread chronic inflammatory dermatological condition. The precise molecular and genetic mechanisms of its pathogenesis remain incompletely understood. This research synthesizes existing databases, targeting a comprehensive exploration of core genetic markers.

METHODS

Gene expression datasets (GSE6475, GSE108110, and GSE53795) were retrieved from the GEO. Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified using the limma package. Enrichment analyses were conducted using GSVA for pathway assessment and clusterProfiler for GO and KEGG analyses. PPI networks and immune cell infiltration were analyzed using the STRING database and ssGSEA, respectively. We investigated the correlation between hub gene biomarkers and immune cell infiltration using Spearman's rank analysis. ROC curve analysis validated the hub genes' diagnostic accuracy. miRNet, TarBase v8.0, and ChEA3 identified miRNA/transcription factor-gene interactions, while DrugBank delineated drug-gene interactions. Experiments utilized HaCaT cells stimulated with Propionibacterium acnes, treated with retinoic acid and methotrexate, and evaluated using RT-qPCR, ELISA, western blot, lentiviral transduction, CCK-8, wound-healing, and transwell assays.

RESULTS

There were 104 genes with consistent differences across the three datasets of paired acne and normal skin. Functional analyses emphasized the significant enrichment of these DEGs in immune-related pathways. PPI network analysis pinpointed hub genes PTPRC, CXCL8, ITGB2, and MMP9 as central players in acne pathogenesis. Elevated levels of specific immune cell infiltration in acne lesions corroborated the inflammatory nature of the disease. ROC curve analysis identified the acne diagnostic potential of four hub genes. Key miRNAs, particularly hsa-mir-124-3p, and central transcription factors like TFEC were noted as significant regulators. In vitro validation using HaCaT cells confirmed the upregulation of hub genes following Propionibacterium acnes exposure, while CXCL8 knockdown reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines, cell proliferation, and migration. DrugBank insights led to the exploration of retinoic acid and methotrexate, both of which mitigated gene expression upsurge and inflammatory mediator secretion.

CONCLUSION

This comprehensive study elucidated pivotal genes associated with acne pathogenesis, notably PTPRC, CXCL8, ITGB2, and MMP9. The findings underscore potential biomarkers, therapeutic targets, and the therapeutic potential of agents like retinoic acid and methotrexate. The congruence between bioinformatics and experimental validations suggests promising avenues for personalized acne treatments.

Functionalized siRNA-chitosan nanoformulations promote triple-negative breast cancer cell death via blocking the miRNA-21/AKT/ERK signaling axis: in-silico and in vitro studies

Oncogenic microRNA (miRNA), especially miRNA-21 upregulation in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), suggests a new class of therapeutic targets. In this study, we aimed to create GE11 peptide-conjugated small interfering RNA-loaded chitosan nanoparticles (GE11-siRNA-CSNPs) for the targeting of EGFR overexpressed TNBC and selectively inhibit miRNA-21 expression. A variety of in-silico and in vitro cellular and molecular studies were conducted to investigate the binding affinities of specific targets used as well as the anticancer efficacies and mechanisms of GE11-siRNA-CSNPs in TNBC cells. An in-silico assessment reveals a distinct binding affinity of miRNA-21 with siRNA as well as between the extracellular domain of EGFR and synthesized peptides. Notably, the in vitro results showed that GE11-siRNA-CSNPs were revealed to have better cytotoxicity against TNBC cells. It significantly inhibits miRNA-21 expression, cell migration, and colony formation. The results also indicated that GE11-siRNA-CSNPs impeded cell cycle progression. It induces cell death by reducing the expression of the antiapoptotic gene Bcl-2 and increasing the expression of the proapoptotic genes Bax, Caspase 3, and Caspase 9. Additionally, the docking analysis and immunoblot investigations verified that GE1-siRNA-CSNPs, which specifically target TNBC cells and suppress miRNA-21, can prevent the effects of miRNA-21 on the proliferation of TNBC cells via controlling EGFR and subsequently inhibiting the PI3K/AKT and ERK1/2 signaling axis. The GE11-siRNA-CSNPs design, which specifically targets TNBC cells, offers a novel approach for the treatment of breast cancer with improved effectiveness. This study suggests that GE11-siRNA-CSNPs could be a promising candidate for further assessment as an additional strategy in the treatment of TNBC.

Anti-EGFR ScFv functionalized exosomes delivering LPCAT1 specific siRNAs for inhibition of lung cancer brain metastases

Brain metastasis (BM) is one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths in patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). However, limited treatments are available due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Upregulation of lysophosphatidylcholine acyltransferase 1 (LPCAT1) in NSCLC has been found to promote BM. Conversely, downregulating LPCAT1 significantly suppresses the proliferation and metastasis of lung cancer cells. In this study, we firstly confirmed significant upregulation of LPCAT1 in BM sites compared to primary lung cancer by analyzing scRNA dataset. We then designed a delivery system based on a single-chain variable fragment (scFv) targeting the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and exosomes derived from HEK293T cells to enhance cell-targeting capabilities and increase permeability. Next, we loaded LPCAT1 siRNA (siLPCAT1) into these engineered exosomes (exoscFv). This novel scFv-mounted exosome successfully crossed the BBB in an animal model and delivered siLPCAT1 to the BM site. Silencing LPCAT1 efficiently arrested tumor growth and inhibited malignant progression of BM in vivo without detectable toxicity. Overall, we provided a potential platform based on exosomes for RNA interference (RNAi) therapy in lung cancer BM.

The advent of RNA-based therapeutics for metabolic syndrome and associated conditions: a comprehensive review of the literature

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a prevalent and intricate health condition affecting a significant global population, characterized by a cluster of metabolic and hormonal disorders disrupting lipid and glucose metabolism pathways. Clinical manifestations encompass obesity, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and hypertension, contributing to heightened risks of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Existing medications often fall short in addressing the syndrome's multifaceted nature, leading to suboptimal treatment outcomes and potential long-term health risks. This scenario underscores the pressing need for innovative therapeutic approaches in MetS management. RNA-based treatments, employing small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), emerge as promising strategies to target underlying biological abnormalities. However, a summary of research available on the role of RNA-based therapeutics in MetS and related co-morbidities is limited. Murine models and human studies have been separately interrogated to determine whether there have been recent advancements in RNA-based therapeutics to offer a comprehensive understanding of treatment available for MetS. In a narrative fashion, we searched for relevant articles pertaining to MetS co-morbidities such as cardiovascular disease, fatty liver disease, dementia, colorectal cancer, and endocrine abnormalities. We emphasize the urgency of exploring novel therapeutic avenues to address the intricate pathophysiology of MetS and underscore the potential of RNA-based treatments, coupled with advanced delivery systems, as a transformative approach for achieving more comprehensive and efficacious outcomes in MetS patients.

Landscape of NRXN1 Gene Variants in Phenotypic Manifestations of Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review

Background: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition characterized by social communication challenges and repetitive behaviors. Recent research has increasingly focused on the genetic underpinnings of ASD, with the Neurexin 1 (NRXN1) gene emerging as a key player. This comprehensive systematic review elucidates the contribution of NRXN1 gene variants in the pathophysiology of ASD. Methods: The protocol for this systematic review was designed a priori and was registered in the PROSPERO database (CRD42023450418). A risk of bias analysis was conducted using the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal tool. We examined various studies that link NRXN1 gene disruptions with ASD, discussing both the genotypic variability and the resulting phenotypic expressions. Results: Within this review, there was marked heterogeneity observed in ASD genotypic and phenotypic manifestations among individuals with NRXN1 mutations. The presence of NRXN1 mutations in this population emphasizes the gene's role in synaptic function and neural connectivity. Conclusion: This review not only highlights the role of NRXN1 in the pathophysiology of ASD but also highlights the need for further research to unravel the complex genetic underpinnings of the disorder. A better knowledge about the multifaceted role of NRXN1 in ASD can provide crucial insights into the neurobiological foundations of autism and pave the way for novel therapeutic strategies.

Adoptive cell therapy for solid tumors beyond CAR-T: Current challenges and emerging therapeutic advances

Adoptive cellular immunotherapy using immune cells expressing chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) is a highly specific anti-tumor immunotherapy that has shown promise in the treatment of hematological malignancies. However, there has been a slow progress toward the treatment of solid tumors owing to the complex tumor microenvironment that affects the localization and killing ability of the CAR cells. Solid tumors with a strong immunosuppressive microenvironment and complex vascular system are unaffected by CAR cell infiltration and attack. To improve their efficacy toward solid tumors, CAR cells have been modified and upgraded by "decorating" and "pruning". This review focuses on the structure and function of CARs, the immune cells that can be engineered by CARs and the transformation strategies to overcome solid tumors, with a view to broadening ideas for the better application of CAR cell therapy for the treatment of solid tumors.

Folate-modified liposomes mediate the co-delivery of cisplatin with miR-219a-5p for the targeted treatment of cisplatin-resistant lung cancer

Cisplatin (DDP) resistance, often leading to first-line chemotherapy failure in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), poses a significant challenge. MiR-219a-5p has been reported to enhance the sensitivity of human NSCLC to DDP. However, free miR-219a-5p is prone to degradation by nucleases in the bloodstream, rendering it unstable. In light of this, our study developed an efficient nanodrug delivery system that achieved targeted delivery of DDP and miR-219a-5p by modifying liposomes with folate (FA). Based on the results of material characterization, we successfully constructed a well-dispersed and uniformly sized (approximately 135.8 nm) Lipo@DDP@miR-219a-5p@FA nanodrug. Agarose gel electrophoresis experiments demonstrated that Lipo@DDP@miR-219a-5p@FA exhibited good stability in serum, effectively protecting miR-219a-5p from degradation. Immunofluorescence and flow cytometry experiments revealed that, due to FA modification, Lipo@DDP@miR-219a-5p@FA could specifically bind to FA receptors on the surface of tumor cells (A549), thus enhancing drug internalization efficiency. Safety evaluations conducted in vitro demonstrated that Lipo@DDP@miR-219a-5p@FA exhibited no significant toxicity to non-cancer cells (BEAS-2B) and displayed excellent blood compatibility. Cellular functional experiments, apoptosis assays, and western blot demonstrated that Lipo@DDP@miR-219a-5p@FA effectively reversed DDP resistance in A549 cells, inhibited cell proliferation and migration, and further promoted apoptosis. In summary, the Lipo@DDP@miR-219a-5p@FA nanodrug, through specific targeting of cancer cells and reducing their resistance to DDP, significantly enhanced the anti-NSCLC effects of DDP in vitro, providing a promising therapeutic option for the clinical treatment of NSCLC.

Context-Responsive Nanoparticle Derived from Synthetic Zwitterionic Ionizable Phospholipids in Targeted CRISPR/Cas9 Therapy for Basal-like Breast Cancer

The majority of triple negative breast cancers (TNBCs) are basal-like breast cancers (BLBCs), which tend to be more aggressive, proliferate rapidly, and have poor clinical outcomes. A key prognostic biomarker and regulator of BLBC is the Forkhead box C1 (FOXC1) transcription factor. However, because of its functional placement inside the cell nucleus and its structural similarity with other related proteins, targeting FOXC1 for therapeutic benefit, particularly for BLBC, continues to be difficult. We envision targeted nonviral delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 plasmid toward the efficacious knockdown of FOXC1. Keeping in mind the challenges associated with the use of CRISPR/Cas9 in vivo, including off-targeting modifications, and effective release of the cargo, a nanoparticle with context responsive properties can be designed for efficient targeted delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 plasmid. Consequently, we have designed, synthesized, and characterized a zwitterionic amino phospholipid-derived transfecting nanoparticle for delivery of CRISPR/Cas9. The construct becomes positively charged only at low pH, which encourages membrane instability and makes it easier for nanoparticles to exit endosomes. This has enabled effective in vitro and in vivo downregulation of protein expression and genome editing. Following this, we have used EpCAM aptamer to make the system targeted toward BLBC cell lines and to reduce its off-target toxicity. The in vivo efficacy, biodistribution, preliminary pharmacokinetics, and biosafety of the optimized targeted CRISPR nanoplatform is then validated in a rodent xenograft model. Overall, we have attempted to knockout the proto-oncogenic FOXC1 expression in BLBC cases by efficient delivery of CRISPR effectors via a context-responsive nanoparticle delivery system derived from a designer lipid derivative. We believe that the nonviral approach for in vitro and in vivo delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 targeted toward FOXC1, studied herein, will greatly emphasize the therapeutic regimen for BLBC.

Enhanced bacterial cancer therapy delivering therapeutic RNA interference of c-Myc

BACKGROUND

Bacterial cancer therapy was first trialled in patients at the end of the nineteenth century. More recently, tumour-targeting bacteria have been harnessed to deliver plasmid-expressed therapeutic interfering RNA to a range of solid tumours. A major limitation to clinical translation of this is the short-term nature of RNA interference in vivo due to plasmid instability. To overcome this, we sought to develop tumour-targeting attenuated bacteria that stably express shRNA by virtue of integration of an expression cassette within the bacterial chromosome and demonstrate therapeutic efficacy in vitro and in vivo.

RESULTS

The attenuated tumour targeting Salmonella typhimurium SL7207 strain was modified to carry chromosomally integrated shRNA expression cassettes at the xylA locus. The colorectal cancer cell lines SW480, HCT116 and breast cancer cell line MCF7 were used to demonstrate the ability of these modified strains to perform intracellular infection and deliver effective RNA and protein knockdown of the target gene c-Myc. In vivo therapeutic efficacy was demonstrated using the Lgr5creERT2Apcflx/flx and BlgCreBrca2flx/flp53flx/flx orthotopic immunocompetent mouse models of colorectal and breast cancer, respectively. In vitro co-cultures of breast and colorectal cancer cell lines with modified SL7207 demonstrated a significant 50-95% (P < 0.01) reduction in RNA and protein expression with SL7207/c-Myc targeted strains. In vivo, following establishment of tumour tissue, a single intra-peritoneal administration of 1 × 106 CFU of SL7207/c-Myc was sufficient to permit tumour colonisation and significantly extend survival with no overt toxicity in control animals.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary we have demonstrated that tumour tropic bacteria can be modified to safely deliver therapeutic levels of gene knockdown. This technology has the potential to specifically target primary and secondary solid tumours with personalised therapeutic payloads, providing new multi-cancer detection and treatment options with minimal off-target effects. Further understanding of the tropism mechanisms and impact on host immunity and microbiome is required to progress to clinical translation.

Co-Delivery of siRNA and Docetaxel to Cancer Cells by NLC for Therapy

The present study aims to develop a delivery system that can carry small interference RNA (siRNA) with small-molecule chemotherapeutic drugs, which can be used in cancer treatment. The drug delivery system combines the advantages of a therapeutic agent with two different mechanisms to ensure that it is used efficiently for cancer therapy. In this study, a nanostructured lipid carrier system was prepared, Docetaxel was loaded to these systems, and the Eph siRNA was adsorbed to the outer surface. In addition, DOTAP was added to the lipophilic phase to load a positive charge on the lipidic structure for interaction with the cells. Moreover, characterization, cytotoxicity, and transfection procedures were performed on the whole system. This candidate system was also compared to Taxotere, which is the first approved Docetaxel-containing drug on the market. Given the results, it was determined that the particle size of NLC-DTX was 165.3 ± 3.5 nm, the ζ potential value was 38.2 ± 1.7 mV, and the PDI was 0.187 ± 0.024. Entrapment efficacy of nanoparticles was found to be 92.89 ± 0.21%. It was determined that the lipidic system prepared in vitro release analyses were able to provide sustained release and exhibit cytotoxicity, even at doses lower than the dose used for Taxotere. The formulations prepared had a higher level of effect on cells when compared with pure DTX and Taxotere, but they also exhibited time-dependent cytotoxicity. It was also observed that the use of Eph siRNA together with the chemotherapeutic agent via formulation also contributed to this cell death. The results of the present study indicate that there is a promising carrier system in order to deliver hydrophilic nucleic acids, such as siRNA, together with lipophilic drugs in cancer treatment.

SPIONs: Superparamagnetic iron oxide-based nanoparticles for the delivery of microRNAi-therapeutics in cancer

Non-coding RNA (ncRNA)-based therapeutics that induce RNA interference (RNAi), such as microRNAs (miRNAs), have drawn considerable attention as a novel class of targeted cancer therapeutics because of their capacity to specifically target oncogenes/protooncogenes that regulate key signaling pathways involved in carcinogenesis, tumor growth and progression, metastasis, cell survival, proliferation, angiogenesis, and drug resistance. However, clinical translation of miRNA-based therapeutics, in particular, has been challenging due to the ineffective delivery of ncRNA molecules into tumors and their uptake into cancer cells. Recently, superparamagnetic iron oxide-based nanoparticles (SPIONs) have emerged as highly effective and efficient for the delivery of therapeutic RNAs to malignant tissues, as well as theranostic (therapy and diagnostic) applications, due to their excellent biocompatibility, magnetic responsiveness, broad functional surface modification, safety, and biodistribution profiles. This review highlights recent advances in the use of SPIONs for the delivery of ncRNA-based therapeutics with an emphasis on their synthesis and coating strategies. Moreover, the advantages and current limitations of SPIONs and their future perspectives are discussed.

Effective delivery and selective insecticidal activity of double-stranded RNA via complexation with diblock copolymer varies with polymer block composition

BACKGROUND

Chemical insecticides are an important tool to control damaging pest infestations. However, lack of species specificity, the rise of resistance and the demand for biological alternatives with improved ecotoxicity profiles means that chemicals with new modes of action are required. RNA interference (RNAi)-based strategies using double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) as a species-specific bio-insecticide offer an exquisite solution that addresses these issues. Many species, such as the fruit pest Drosophila suzukii, do not exhibit RNAi when dsRNA is orally administered due to degradation by gut nucleases and slow cellular uptake pathways. Thus, delivery vehicles that protect and deliver dsRNA are highly desirable.

RESULTS

In this work, we demonstrate the complexation of D. suzukii-specific dsRNA for degradation of vha26 mRNA with bespoke diblock copolymers. We study the ex vivo protection of dsRNA against enzymatic degradation by gut enzymes, which demonstrates the efficiency of this system. Flow cytometry then investigates the cellular uptake of Cy3-labelled dsRNA, showing a 10-fold increase in the mean fluorescence intensity of cells treated with polyplexes. The polymer/dsRNA polyplexes induced a significant 87% decrease in the odds of survival of D. suzukii larvae following oral feeding only when formed with a diblock copolymer containing a long neutral block length (1:2 cationic block/neutral block). However, there was no toxicity when fed to the closely related Drosophila melanogaster.

CONCLUSION

We provide evidence that dsRNA complexation with diblock copolymers is a promising strategy for RNAi-based species-specific pest control, but optimisation of polymer composition is essential for RNAi success. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Engineering a biomimetic system for hepatocyte-specific RNAi treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

RNA interference (RNAi) presents great potential against intractable liver diseases. However, the establishment of specific, efficient, and safe delivery systems targeting hepatocytes remains a great challenge. Herein, we described a promising hepatocytes-targeting system through integrating triantennary N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc)-engineered cell membrane with biodegradable mesoporous silica nanoparticles, which efficiently and safely delivered siRNA to hepatocytes and silenced the target PCSK9 gene expression for the treatment of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Having optimized the GalNAc-engineering strategy, insertion orders, and cell membrane source, we obtained the best-performing GalNAc-formulations allowing strong hepatocyte-specific internalization with reduced Kupffer cell capture, resulting in robust gene silencing and less hepatotoxicity when compared with cationic lipid-based GalNAc-formulations. Consequently, a durable reduction of lipid accumulation and damage was achieved by systemic administering siRNAs targeting PCSK9 in high-fat diet-fed mice, accompanied by displaying desirable safety profiles. Taken together, this GalNAc-engineering biomimetics represented versatile, efficient, and safe carriers for the development of hepatocyte-specific gene therapeutics, and prevention of metabolic diseases. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Compared to MSN@LP-GN3 (MC3-LNP), MSN@CM-GN3 exhibited strong hepatocyte targeting and Kupffer cell escaping, as well as good biocompatibility for safe and efficient siRNA delivery. Furthermore, siPCSK9 delivered by MSN@CM-GN3 reduced both serum and liver LDL-C, TG, TC levels and lipid droplets in HFD-induced mice, resulting in better performance than MSN/siPCSK9@LP-GN3 in terms of lipid-lowering effect and safety profiles. These findings indicated promising advantages of our biomimetic GN3-based systems for hepatocyte-specific gene delivery in chronic liver diseases. Our work addressed the challenges associated with the lower targeting efficiency of cell membrane-mimetic drug delivery systems and the immunogenicity of traditional GalNAc delivery systems. In conclusion, this study provided an effective and versatile approach for efficient and safe gene editing using ligand-integrated biomimetic nanoplatforms.

The Effect of PEGylation on Drugs' Pharmacokinetic Parameters; from Absorption to Excretion

Until the drugs enter humans life, they may face problems in transportation, drug delivery, and metabolism. These problems can cause reducing drug's therapeutic effect and even increase its side effects. Together, these cases can reduce the patient's compliance with the treatment and complicate the treatment process. Much work has been done to solve or at least reduce these problems. For example, using different forms of a single drug molecule (like Citalopram and Escitalopram); slight changes in the drug's molecule like Meperidine and α-Prodine, and using carriers (like Tigerase®). PEGylation is a recently presented method that can use for many targets. Poly Ethylene Glycol or PEG is a polymer that can attach to drugs by using different methods and resulting sustained release, controlled metabolism, targeted delivery, and other cases. Although they will not necessarily lead to an increase in the effect of the drug, they will lead to the improvement of the treatment process in certain ways. In this article, the team of authors has tried to collect and carefully review the best cases based on the PEGylation of drugs that can help the readers of this article.

Emerging delivery approaches for targeted pulmonary fibrosis treatment

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a progressive, and life-threatening interstitial lung disease which causes scarring in the lung parenchyma and thereby affects architecture and functioning of lung. It is an irreversible damage to lung functioning which is related to epithelial cell injury, immense accumulation of immune cells and inflammatory cytokines, and irregular recruitment of extracellular matrix. The inflammatory cytokines trigger the differentiation of fibroblasts into activated fibroblasts, also known as myofibroblasts, which further increase the production and deposition of collagen at the injury sites in the lung. Despite the significant morbidity and mortality associated with PF, there is no available treatment that efficiently and effectively treats the disease by reversing their underlying pathologies. In recent years, many therapeutic regimens, for instance, rho kinase inhibitors, Smad signaling pathway inhibitors, p38, BCL-xL/ BCL-2 and JNK pathway inhibitors, have been found to be potent and effective in treating PF, in preclinical stages. However, due to non-selectivity and non-specificity, the therapeutic molecules also result in toxicity mediated severe side effects. Hence, this review demonstrates recent advances on PF pathology, mechanism and targets related to PF, development of various drug delivery systems based on small molecules, RNAs, oligonucleotides, peptides, antibodies, exosomes, and stem cells for the treatment of PF and the progress of various therapeutic treatments in clinical trials to advance PF treatment.

Engineered mesoporous silica nanoparticles, new insight nanoplatforms into effective cancer gene therapy

The use of nucleic acid to control the expression of genes relevant to tumor progression is a key therapeutic approach in cancer research. Therapeutics based on nucleic acid provide novel concepts for untreatable targets. Nucleic acids as molecular medications must enter the target cell to be effective and obstacles in the systemic delivery of DNA or RNA limit their use in a clinical setting. The creation of nucleic acid delivery systems based on nanoparticles in order to circumvent biological constraints is advancing quickly. The ease of synthesis and surface modification, biocompatibility, biodegradability, cost-effectiveness and high loading capability of nucleic acids have prompted the use of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) in gene therapy. The unique surface features of MSNs facilitate their design and decoration for high loading of nucleic acids, immune system evasion, cancer cell targeting, controlled cargo release, and endosomal escape. Reports have demonstrated successful therapeutic outcomes with the administration of a variety of engineered MSNs capable of delivering genes to tumor sites in laboratory animals. This comprehensive review of studies about siRNA, miRNA, shRNA, lncRNA and CRISPR/Cas9 delivery by MSNs reveals engineered MSNs as a safe and efficient system for gene transfer to cancer cells and cancer mouse models.

Nano-scale delivery systems for siRNA delivery in cancer therapy: New era of gene therapy empowered by nanotechnology

RNA interference (RNAi) is a unique treatment approach used to decrease a disease's excessive gene expression, including cancer. SiRNAs may find and destroy homologous mRNA sequences within the cell thanks to RNAi processes. However, difficulties such poor cellular uptake, off-target effects, and susceptibility to destruction by serum nucleases in the bloodstream restrict the therapeutic potential of siRNAs. Since some years ago, siRNA-based therapies have been in the process of being translated into the clinic. Therefore, the primary emphasis of this work is on sophisticated nanocarriers that aid in the transport of siRNA payloads, their administration in combination with anticancer medications, and their use in the treatment of cancer. The research looks into molecular manifestations, difficulties with siRNA transport, the design and development of siRNA-based delivery methods, and the benefits and drawbacks of various nanocarriers. The trapping of siRNA in endosomes is a challenge for the majority of delivery methods, which affects the therapeutic effectiveness. Numerous techniques for siRNA release, including as pH-responsive release, membrane fusion, the proton sponge effect, and photochemical disruption, have been studied to overcome this problem. The present state of siRNA treatments in clinical trials is also looked at in order to give a thorough and systematic evaluation of siRNA-based medicines for efficient cancer therapy.

Salmonella enterica and outer membrane vesicles are current and future options for cancer treatment

Conventional cancer therapies have many limitations. In the last decade, it has been suggested that bacteria-mediated immunotherapy may circumvent the restrictions of traditional treatments. For example, Salmonella enterica is the most promising bacteria for treating cancer due to its intrinsic abilities, such as killing tumor cells, targeting, penetrating, and proliferating into the tumor. S. enterica has been genetically modified to ensure safety and increase its intrinsic antitumor efficacy. This bacterium has been used as a vector for delivering anticancer agents and as a combination therapy with chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or photothermic. Recent studies have reported the antitumor efficacy of outer membrane vesicles (OMVs) derived from S. enterica. OMVs are considered safer than attenuated bacteria and can stimulate the immune system as they comprise most of the immunogens found on the surface of their parent bacteria. Furthermore, OMVs can also be used as nanocarriers for antitumor agents. This review describes the advances in S. enterica as immunotherapy against cancer and the mechanisms by which Salmonella fights cancer. We also highlight the use of OMVs as immunotherapy and nanocarriers of anticancer agents. OMVs derived from S. enterica are innovative and promising strategies requiring further investigation.

Delivery of SAV-siRNA via Exosomes from Adipose-Derived Stem Cells for the Treatment of Myocardial Infarction

BACKGROUND

Myocardial infarction (MI) leads to cardiomyocyte death, poor cardiac remodeling, and heart failure, making it a major cause of mortality and morbidity. To restore cardiac pumping function, induction of cardiomyocyte regeneration has become a focus of academic interest. The Hippo pathway is known to regulate cardiomyocyte proliferation and heart size, and its inactivation allows adult cardiomyocytes to re-enter the cell cycle.

METHODS

In this study, we investigated whether exosomes from adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) could effectively transfer siRNA for the Hippo pathway regulator Salvador (SAV) into cardiomyocytes to induce cardiomyocyte regeneration in a mouse model of MI.

RESULTS

Our results showed that exosomes loaded with SAV-siRNA effectively transferred siRNA into cardiomyocytes and induced cardiomyocyte re-entry into the cell cycle, while retaining the previously demonstrated therapeutic efficacy of ADSC-derived exosomes to improve post-infarction cardiac function through anti-fibrotic, pro-angiogenic, and other effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that siRNA delivery via ADSC-derived exosomes may be a promising approach for the treatment of MI.

Stimuli-Responsive Nanotechnology for RNA Delivery

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) drugs have shown promising therapeutic effects for various diseases in clinical and preclinical studies, owing to their capability to regulate the expression of genes of interest or control protein synthesis. Different strategies, such as chemical modification, ligand conjugation, and nanotechnology, have contributed to the successful clinical translation of RNA medicine, including small interfering RNA (siRNA) for gene silencing and messenger RNA (mRNA) for vaccine development. Among these, nanotechnology can protect RNAs from enzymatic degradation, increase cellular uptake and cytosolic transportation, prolong systemic circulation, and improve tissue/cell targeting. Here, a focused overview of stimuli-responsive nanotechnologies for RNA delivery, which have shown unique benefits in promoting RNA bioactivity and cell/organ selectivity, is provided. Many tissue/cell-specific microenvironmental features, such as pH, enzyme, hypoxia, and redox, are utilized in designing internal stimuli-responsive RNA nanoparticles (NPs). In addition, external stimuli, such as light, magnetic field, and ultrasound, have also been used for controlling RNA release and transportation. This review summarizes a wide range of stimuli-responsive NP systems for RNA delivery, which may facilitate the development of next-generation RNA medicines.

Targeting casein kinase 1 for cancer therapy: current strategies and future perspectives

Casein Kinase 1 (CK1) is a family of serine/threonine protein kinases that play a crucial role in various cellular processes, including cell proliferation, survival, and metabolism. The dysregulation of CK1 expression has been implicated in the development and progression of several types of cancer, making it an attractive target for anticancer therapy. In this review, we provide an overview of the current strategies employed to target CK1 for cancer therapy and discuss the future perspectives in this field. We highlight the different approaches, including small molecule inhibitors, RNA interference, genome editing, and immunotherapies, which hold immense potential for targeted modulation of CK1 activity in cancer cells. Furthermore, we discuss the challenges associated with targeting CK1 and propose potential strategies to overcome these hurdles. Overall, targeting CK1 holds great promise as a therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment, and further research in this area is warranted.

Dysregulation of Non-Coding RNAs: Roles of miRNAs and lncRNAs in the Pathogenesis of Multiple Myeloma

The dysregulation of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), specifically microRNAs (miRNAs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), leads to the development and advancement of multiple myeloma (MM). miRNAs, in particular, are paramount in post-transcriptional gene regulation, promoting mRNA degradation and translational inhibition. As a result, miRNAs can serve as oncogenes or tumor suppressors depending on the target genes. In MM, miRNA disruption could result in abnormal gene expression responsible for cell growth, apoptosis, and other biological processes pertinent to cancer development. The dysregulated miRNAs inhibit the activity of tumor suppressor genes, contributing to disease progression. Nonetheless, several miRNAs are downregulated in MM and have been identified as gene regulators implicated in extracellular matrix remodeling and cell adhesion. miRNA depletion potentially facilitates the tumor advancement and resistance of therapeutic drugs. Additionally, lncRNAs are key regulators of numerous cellular processes, such as gene expression, chromatin remodeling, protein trafficking, and recently linked MM development. The lncRNAs are uniquely expressed and influence gene expression that supports MM growth, in addition to facilitating cellular proliferation and viability via multiple molecular pathways. miRNA and lncRNA alterations potentially result in anomalous gene expression and interfere with the regular functioning of MM. Thus, this review aims to highlight the dysregulation of these ncRNAs, which engender novel therapeutic modalities for the treatment of MM.

Applications of engineered exosomes in drugging noncoding RNAs for cancer therapy

Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are engaged in key cell biological and pathological events, and their expression alteration is connected to cancer progression both directly and indirectly. A huge number of studies have mentioned the significant role of ncRNAs in cancer prevention and therapy that make them an interesting subject for cancer therapy. However, there are several limitations, including delivery, uptake, and short half-life, in the application of ncRNAs in cancer treatment. Exosomes are introduced as promising options for the delivery of ncRNAs to the target cells. In this review, we will briefly discuss the application and barriers of ncRNAs. After that we will focus on exosome-based ncRNAs delivery and their advantages as well as the latest achievements in drugging ncRNAs with exosomes.

Advances in siRNA delivery approaches in cancer therapy: challenges and opportunities

Advancements in the clinical applications of small interfering RNA (siRNA) in cancer therapy have opened up new possibilities for precision medicine. siRNAs, as powerful genetic tools, have shown potential in targeting and suppressing the expression of specific genes associated with cancer progression. Their effectiveness has been further enhanced by incorporating them into nanoparticles, which protect siRNAs from degradation and enable targeted delivery. However, despite these promising developments, several challenges persist in the clinical translation of siRNA-based cancer therapy. This comprehensive review explores the progress and challenges associated with the clinical applications of siRNA in cancer therapy. This review highlights the use of siRNA-loaded nanoparticles as an effective delivery system for optimizing siRNA efficacy in various types of carcinomas and the potential of siRNA-based therapy as a genetic approach to overcome limitations associated with conventional chemotherapeutic agents, including severe drug toxicities and organ damage. Moreover, it emphasizes on the key challenges, including off-target effects, enzymatic degradation of siRNAs in serum, low tumor localization, stability issues, and rapid clearance from circulation that need to be addressed for successful clinical development of siRNA-based cancer therapy. Despite these challenges, the review identifies significant avenues for advancing siRNA technology from the laboratory to clinical settings. The ongoing progress in siRNA-loaded nanoparticles for cancer treatment demonstrates potential antitumor activities and safety profiles. By understanding the current state of siRNA-based therapy and addressing the existing challenges, we aim to pave the way for translating siRNA technology into effective oncologic clinics as an improved treatment options for cancer patients.

Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based therapeutic applications against viruses: principles, potential, and challenges

RNA has emerged as a revolutionary and important tool in the battle against emerging infectious diseases, with roles extending beyond its applications in vaccines, in which it is used in the response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Since their development in the 1990s, RNA interference (RNAi) therapeutics have demonstrated potential in reducing the expression of disease-associated genes. Nucleic acid-based therapeutics, including RNAi therapies, that degrade viral genomes and rapidly adapt to viral mutations, have emerged as alternative treatments. RNAi is a robust technique frequently employed to selectively suppress gene expression in a sequence-specific manner. The swift adaptability of nucleic acid-based therapeutics such as RNAi therapies endows them with a significant advantage over other antiviral medications. For example, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are produced on the basis of sequence complementarity to target and degrade viral RNA, a novel approach to combat viral infections. The precision of siRNAs in targeting and degrading viral RNA has led to the development of siRNA-based treatments for diverse diseases. However, despite the promising therapeutic benefits of siRNAs, several problems, including impaired long-term protein expression, siRNA instability, off-target effects, immunological responses, and drug resistance, have been considerable obstacles to the use of siRNA-based antiviral therapies. This review provides an encompassing summary of the siRNA-based therapeutic approaches against viruses while also addressing the obstacles that need to be overcome for their effective application. Furthermore, we present potential solutions to mitigate major challenges.

Hantavirus: an overview and advancements in therapeutic approaches for infection

Hantaviruses are a significant and emerging global public health threat, impacting more than 200,000 individuals worldwide each year. The single-stranded RNA viruses belong to the Hantaviridae family and are responsible for causing two acute febrile diseases in humans: Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) and hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS). Currently, there are no licensed treatments or vaccines available globally for HTNV infection. Various candidate drugs have shown efficacy in increasing survival rates during the early stages of HTNV infection. Some of these drugs include lactoferrin, ribavirin, ETAR, favipiravir and vandetanib. Immunotherapy utilizing neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) generated from Hantavirus convalescent patients show efficacy against HTNV. Monoclonal antibodies such as MIB22 and JL16 have demonstrated effectiveness in protecting against HTNV infection. The development of vaccines and antivirals, used independently and/or in combination, is critical for elucidating hantaviral infections and the impact on public health. RNA interference (RNAi) arised as an emerging antiviral therapy, is a highly specific degrades RNA, with post-transcriptional mechanism using eukaryotic cells platform. That has demonstrated efficacy against a wide range of viruses, both in vitro and in vivo. Recent antiviral methods involve using small interfering RNA (siRNA) and other, immune-based therapies to target specific gene segments (S, M, or L) of the Hantavirus. This therapeutic approach enhances viral RNA clearance through the RNA interference process in Vero E6 cells or human lung microvascular endothelial cells. However, the use of siRNAs faces challenges due to their low biological stability and limited in vivo targeting ability. Despite their successful inhibition of Hantavirus replication in host cells, their antiviral efficacy may be hindered. In the current review, we focus on advances in therapeutic strategies, as antiviral medications, immune-based therapies and vaccine candidates aimed at enhancing the body's ability to control the progression of Hantavirus infections, with the potential to reduce the risk of severe disease.

Fibrosis and bone marrow: understanding causation and pathobiology

Bone marrow fibrosis represents an important structural change in the marrow that interferes with some of its normal functions. The aetiopathogenesis of fibrosis is not well established except in its primary form. The present review consolidates current understanding of marrow fibrosis. We searched PubMed without time restriction using key words: bone marrow and fibrosis as the main stem against the terms: growth factors, cytokines and chemokines, morphology, megakaryocytes and platelets, myeloproliferative disorders, myelodysplastic syndrome, collagen biosynthesis, mesenchymal stem cells, vitamins and minerals and hormones, and mechanism of tissue fibrosis. Tissue marrow fibrosis-related papers were short listed and analysed for the review. It emerged that bone marrow fibrosis is the outcome of complex interactions between growth factors, cytokines, chemokines and hormones together with their facilitators and inhibitors. Fibrogenesis is initiated by mobilisation of special immunophenotypic subsets of mesenchymal stem cells in the marrow that transform into fibroblasts. Fibrogenic stimuli may arise from neoplastic haemopoietic or non-hematopoietic cells, as well as immune cells involved in infections and inflammatory conditions. Autoimmunity is involved in a small subset of patients with marrow fibrosis. Megakaryocytes and platelets are either directly involved or are important intermediaries in stimulating mesenchymal stem cells. MMPs, TIMPs, TGF-β, PDGRF, and basic FGF and CRCXL4 chemokines are involved in these processes. Genetic and epigenetic changes underlie many of these conditions.

Using RNA-based therapies to target the kidney in cardiovascular disease

RNA-based therapies are currently used for immunisation against infections and to treat metabolic diseases. They can modulate gene expression in immune cells and hepatocytes, but their use in other cell types has been limited by an inability to selectively target specific tissues. Potential solutions to this targeting problem involve packaging therapeutic RNA molecules into delivery vehicles that are preferentially delivered to cells of interest. In this review, we consider why the kidney is a desirable target for RNA-based therapies in cardiovascular disease and discuss how such therapy could be delivered. Because the kidney plays a central role in maintaining cardiovascular homeostasis, many extant drugs used for preventing cardiovascular disease act predominantly on renal tubular cells. Moreover, kidney disease is a major independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease and a global health problem. Chronic kidney disease is projected to become the fifth leading cause of death by 2040, with around half of affected individuals dying from cardiovascular disease. The most promising strategies for delivering therapeutic RNA selectively to kidney cells make use of synthetic polymers and engineered extracellular vesicles to deliver an RNA cargo. Future research should focus on establishing the safety of these novel delivery platforms in humans, on developing palatable routes of administration and on prioritising the gene targets that are likely to have the biggest impact in cardiovascular disease.

RNAi therapies: Expanding applications for extrahepatic diseases and overcoming delivery challenges

The era of RNA medicine has become a reality with the success of messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines against COVID-19 and the approval of several RNA interference (RNAi) agents in recent years. Particularly, therapeutics based on RNAi offer the promise of targeting intractable and previously undruggable disease genes. Recent advances have focused in developing delivery systems to enhance the poor cellular uptake and insufficient pharmacokinetic properties of RNAi therapeutics and thereby improve its efficacy and safety. However, such approach has been mainly achieved via lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) or chemical conjugation with N-Acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc), thus current RNAi therapy has been limited to liver diseases, most likely to encounter liver-targeting limitations. Hence, there is a huge unmet medical need for intense evolution of RNAi therapeutics delivery systems to target extrahepatic tissues and ultimately extend their indications for treating various intractable diseases. In this review, challenges of delivering RNAi therapeutics to tumors and major organs are discussed, as well as their transition to clinical trials. This review also highlights innovative and promising preclinical RNAi-based delivery platforms for the treatment of extrahepatic diseases.

Advances in transdermal siRNAs delivery: A review of current research progress

Small interfering RNA (siRNAs) is a double-stranded RNA molecule which can hybridize with a specific mRNA sequence and block the translation of numerous genes to regulate endogenous genes and to defend the genome from invasive nucleic acids. The use of siRNAs has been studied as a treatment option for various skin conditions. One of the main obstacles in the dermal or transdermal delivery of this compound is low skin permeability, and application is limited by its negative charge, high polarity, susceptibility to degradation by nucleases, and difficulty in penetrating the skin barrier. Effective delivery of therapeutic biomolecules to their target is a challenging issue, which can be solved by innovations in drug delivery systems and lead to improvement of the efficiency of many new biopharmaceuticals. Designing of novel transdermal delivery systems garnered tremendous attention in both cosmeceutical and pharmaceutical research and industries, which offers a number of advantages. Developing safe and efficient siRNAs delivery vectors is essential for effective treatment of skin diseases. In recent years, significant progress has been made in the creation of delivery systems using lipids, polymers, cell-penetrating peptides, nanoparticles and other biologically active agents. In this review we will focus on the recent advancements in transdermal siRNAs delivery vectors, such as liposomes, dendrimers, cell-penetrating peptides, and spherical nucleic acid nanoparticles.

Amelioration of ethanol-induced oxidative stress and alcoholic liver disease by in vivo RNAi targeting Cyp2e1

Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) results from continuous and heavy alcohol consumption. The current treatment strategy for ALD is based on alcohol withdrawal coupled with antioxidant drug intervention, which is a long process with poor efficacy and low patient compliance. Alcohol-induced CYP2E1 upregulation has been demonstrated as a key regulator of ALD, but CYP2E1 knockdown in humans was impractical, and pharmacological inhibition of CYP2E1 by a clinically relevant approach for treating ALD was not shown. In this study, we developed a RNAi therapeutics delivered by lipid nanoparticle, and treated mice fed on Lieber-DeCarli ethanol liquid diet weekly for up to 12 weeks. This RNAi-based inhibition of Cyp2e1 expression reduced reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress in mouse livers, and contributed to improved ALD symptoms in mice. The liver fat accumulation, hepatocyte inflammation, and fibrosis were reduced in ALD models. Therefore, this study suggested the feasibility of RNAi targeting to CYP2E1 as a potential therapeutic tool to the development of ALD.

Targeted miR-34a delivery with PD1 displayed bacterial outer membrane vesicles-coated zeolitic imidazolate framework nanoparticles for enhanced tumor therapy

MicroRNA (miRNA) has been widely used as an effective gene drug for tumor therapy, but its chemical instability limited its therapeutic application in vivo. In this research, we fabricate an efficient miRNA nano-delivery system using zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) coated with bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), aimed for cancer treatment. The acid-sensitive ZIF-8 core enables this system to encapsulate miRNA and release them from lysosome quickly and efficiently in the target cells. The OMVs engineered to display programmed death receptor 1 (PD1) on the surface provides a specific tumor-targeting capability. Using a murine breast cancer model, we show that this system has high miRNA delivery efficiency and accurate tumor targeting. Moreover, the miR-34a payloads in carriers can further synergize with immune activation and checkpoint inhibition triggered by OMV-PD1 to enhance tumor therapeutic efficacy. Overall, this biomimetic nano-delivery platform provides a powerful tool for the intracellular delivery of miRNA and has great potential in RNA-based cancer therapeutic applications.

Design, strategies, and therapeutics in nanoparticle-based siRNA delivery systems for breast cancer

Utilizing small interfering RNA (siRNA) as a treatment for cancer, a disease largely driven by genetic aberrations, shows great promise. However, implementing siRNA therapy in clinical practice is challenging due to its limited bioavailability following systemic administration. An attractive approach to address this issue is the use of a nanoparticle (NP) delivery platform, which protects siRNA and delivers it to the cytoplasm of target cells. We provide an overview of design considerations for using lipid-based NPs, polymer-based NPs, and inorganic NPs to improve the efficacy and safety of siRNA delivery. We focus on the chemical structure modification of carriers and NP formulation optimization, NP surface modifications to target breast cancer cells, and the linking strategy and intracellular release of siRNA. As a practical example, recent advances in the development of siRNA therapeutics for treating breast cancer are discussed, with a focus on inhibiting cancer growth, overcoming drug resistance, inhibiting metastasis, and enhancing immunotherapy.

Non-Coding RNAs: Foes or Friends for Targeting Tumor Microenvironment

Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are a group of molecules critical for cell development and growth regulation. They are key regulators of important cellular pathways in the tumor microenvironment. To analyze ncRNAs in the tumor microenvironment, the use of RNA sequencing technology has revolutionized the field. The advancement of this technique has broadened our understanding of the molecular biology of cancer, presenting abundant possibilities for the exploration of novel biomarkers for cancer treatment. In this review, we will summarize recent achievements in understanding the complex role of ncRNA in the tumor microenvironment, we will report the latest studies on the tumor microenvironment using RNA sequencing, and we will discuss the potential use of ncRNAs as therapeutics for the treatment of cancer.

Delivery of RNA to the Blood-Brain Barrier Endothelium Using Cationic Bicelles

Blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction is prevalent in Alzheimer's disease and other neurological disorders. Restoring normal BBB function through RNA therapy is a potential avenue for addressing cerebrovascular changes in these disorders that may lead to cognitive decline. Although lipid nanoparticles have been traditionally used as drug carriers for RNA, bicelles have been emerging as a better alternative because of their higher cellular uptake and superior transfection capabilities. Cationic bicelles composed of DPPC/DC7PC/DOTAP at molar ratios of 63.8/25.0/11.2 were evaluated for the delivery of RNA in polarized hCMEC/D3 monolayers, a widely used BBB cell culture model. RNA-bicelle complexes were formed at five N/P ratios (1:1 to 5:1) by a thin-film hydration method. The RNA-bicelle complexes at N/P ratios of 3:1 and 4:1 exhibited optimal particle characteristics for cellular delivery. The cellular uptake of cationic bicelles laced with 1 mol% DiI-C18 was confirmed by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. The ability of cationic bicelles (N/P ratio 4:1) to transfect polarized hCMEC/D3 with FITC-labeled control siRNA was tested vis-a-vis commercially available Lipofectamine RNAiMAX. These studies demonstrated the higher transfection efficiency and greater potential of cationic bicelles for RNA delivery to the BBB endothelium.

Development and Perspectives: Multifunctional Nucleic Acid Nanomedicines for Treatment of Gynecological Cancers

Gynecological malignancies are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality across the globe. Due to delayed presentation, gynecological cancer patients are often referred late in the disease's course, resulting in poor outcomes. A considerable number of patients ultimately succumb to chemotherapy-resistant disease, which reoccurs at advanced stages despite treatment interventions. Although efforts have been devoted to developing therapies that demonstrate reduced resistance to chemotherapy and enhanced toxicity profiles, current clinical outcomes remain unsatisfactory due to treatment resistance and unfavorable off-target effects. Consequently, innovative biological and nanotherapeutic approaches are imperative to strengthen and optimize the therapeutic arsenal for gynecological cancers. Advancements in nanotechnology-based therapies for gynecological malignancies offer significant advantages, including reduced toxicity, expanded drug circulation, and optimized therapeutic dosing, ultimately leading to enhanced treatment effectiveness. Recent advances in nucleic acid therapeutics using microRNA, small interfering RNA, and messenger RNA provide novel approaches for cancer therapeutics. Effective single-agent and combinatorial nucleic acid therapeutics for gynecological malignancies have the potential to transform cancer treatment by giving safer, more tailored approaches than conventional therapies. This review highlights current preclinical studies that effectively exploit these approaches for the treatment of gynecological malignant tumors and malignant ascites.

Biomimetic hypoxia-triggered RNAi nanomedicine for synergistically mediating chemo/radiotherapy of glioblastoma

Although RNA interference (RNAi) therapy has emerged as a potential tool in cancer therapeutics, the application of RNAi to glioblastoma (GBM) remains a hurdle. Herein, to improve the therapeutic effect of RNAi on GBM, a cancer cell membrane (CCM)-disguised hypoxia-triggered RNAi nanomedicine was developed for short interfering RNA (siRNA) delivery to sensitize cells to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Our synthesized CCM-disguised RNAi nanomedicine showed prolonged blood circulation, high BBB transcytosis and specific accumulation in GBM sites via homotypic recognition. Disruption and effective anti-GBM agents were triggered in the hypoxic region, leading to efficient tumor suppression by using phosphoglycerate kinase 1 (PGK1) silencing to enhance paclitaxel-induced chemotherapy and sensitize hypoxic GBM cells to ionizing radiation. In summary, a biomimetic intelligent RNAi nanomedicine has been developed for siRNA delivery to synergistically mediate a combined chemo/radiotherapy that presents immune-free and hypoxia-triggered properties with high survival rates for orthotopic GBM treatment.

Stat3 shRNA delivery with folate receptor-modified multi-functionalized graphene oxide particles for combined infrared radiation and gene therapy in hepatocellular carcinoma

As a vital oncogene, a variety of inhibitors targeting Stat3 and its various upstream signaling pathways has been explored. Since small molecules, peptidomimetics and other peptide inhibitors usually lead to side effects and difficult administration, gene therapeutics that have characteristics of low toxicity and high targeting, make them an attractive alternative for targeting Stat3. A major challenge to this approach is the lack of safe delivery systems for in-vivo applications. Among the various siRNA delivery systems, nanoparticles emerge as a new tool for gene delivery with high biocompatibility, low cost, and minimal toxicity. In this study, we developed a graphene oxide (GO)-based nanocarrier, GO-polyethyleneimine (PEI)-polyethylene glycol (PEG)-folic acid (FA), as a tool targeting for Stat3-specific shRNA to mouse hepatoma cells in vitro and in vivo . Infrared photothermal therapy was combined in vivo since GO has the characteristic of infrared absorbability. Our results suggest a significant tumor growth inhibition after treatment with GO-PEI-PEG-FA- sh-Stat3 combined with infrared photothermal therapy. Thus, GO-PEI-PEG-FA appears to be a novel nano-transformer that could be used in the clinics in future.

The Effect of Ethanol on Lipid Nanoparticle Stabilization from a Molecular Dynamics Simulation Perspective

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as a promising delivery system, particularly for genetic therapies and vaccines. LNP formation requires a specific mixture of nucleic acid in a buffered solution and lipid components in ethanol. Ethanol acts as a lipid solvent, aiding the formation of the nanoparticle's core, but its presence can also affect LNP stability. In this study, we used molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to investigate the physicochemical effect of ethanol on LNPs and gain a dynamic understanding of its impact on the overall structure and stability of LNPs. Our results demonstrate that ethanol destabilizes LNP structure over time, indicated by increased root mean square deviation (RMSD) values. Changes in the solvent-accessible surface area (SASA), electron density, and radial distribution function (RDF) also suggest that ethanol affects LNP stability. Furthermore, our H-bond profile analysis shows that ethanol penetrates the LNP earlier than water. These findings emphasize the importance of immediate ethanol removal in lipid-based systems during LNP production to ensure stability.

Emergence of Small Interfering RNA-Based Gene Drugs for Various Diseases

Small molecule, peptide, and protein-based drugs have been developed over decades to treat various diseases. The importance of gene therapy as an alternative to traditional drugs has increased after the discovery of gene-based drugs such as Gendicine for cancer and Neovasculgen for peripheral artery disease. Since then, the pharma sector is focusing on developing gene-based drugs for various diseases. After the discovery of the RNA interference (RNAi) mechanism, the development of siRNA-based gene therapy has been accelerated immensely. siRNA-based treatment for hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis (hATTR) using Onpattro and acute hepatic porphyria (AHP) by Givlaari and three more FDA-approved siRNA drugs has set up a milestone and further improved the confidence for the development of gene therapeutics for a spectrum of diseases. siRNA-based gene drugs have more advantages over other gene therapies and are under study to treat different types of diseases such as viral infections, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and many more. However, there are a few bottlenecks to realizing the full potential of siRNA-based gene therapy. They include chemical instability, nontargeted biodistribution, undesirable innate immune responses, and off-target effects. This review provides a comprehensive view of siRNA-based gene drugs: challenges associated with siRNA delivery, their potential, and future prospects.

The lncRNA HOTAIR: a pleiotropic regulator of epithelial cell plasticity

The epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is a trans-differentiation process that endows epithelial cells with mesenchymal properties, including motility and invasion capacity; therefore, its aberrant reactivation in cancerous cells represents a critical step to gain a metastatic phenotype. The EMT is a dynamic program of cell plasticity; many partial EMT states can be, indeed, encountered and the full inverse mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition (MET) appears fundamental to colonize distant secondary sites. The EMT/MET dynamics is granted by a fine modulation of gene expression in response to intrinsic and extrinsic signals. In this complex scenario, long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) emerged as critical players. This review specifically focuses on the lncRNA HOTAIR, as a master regulator of epithelial cell plasticity and EMT in tumors. Molecular mechanisms controlling its expression in differentiated as well as trans-differentiated epithelial cells are highlighted here. Moreover, current knowledge about HOTAIR pleiotropic functions in regulation of both gene expression and protein activities are described. Furthermore, the relevance of the specific HOTAIR targeting and the current challenges of exploiting this lncRNA for therapeutic approaches to counteract the EMT are discussed.

Synergistically enhanced cancer immunotherapy by combining protamine-based nanovaccine with PD-L1 gene silence nanoparticle

Tumor vaccine has brought a new dawn for cancer immunotherapy, but disillusionary therapeutic outcomes have been achieved due to the inefficient in vivo vaccine delivery. Moreover, tumor cells customarily resort to various wily tricks to circumvent the recognition and sweeping of the immune system, the immune escape effect has badly aggravated the difficulty of cancer management. With respect to the foregoing, in this study, a promising combinational strategy which cooperated nanovaccine with immune escape inhibition was developed for synergistically enhancing the oncotherapy efficiency. On the one hand, natural polycationic macromolecule protamine (PRT) was utilized as the carrier to construct an antigen and adjuvant co-packaged nanovaccine for facilitating the ingestion in antigen-presenting cells, amplifying antigen cross-presentation and optimizing in vivo delivery. On the other hand, PD-L1 silence gene was selected and hitchhiked in a pH-responsive nanoparticle developed in our previous study. The therapeutic gene could be successfully delivered into the tumors to down-regulate PD-L1 expression and cripple tumor immune escape. The combination of nanovaccine with PD-L1 gene silence nanoparticle could synchronously stimulate antitumor immune responses and reduce immune escape, synergistically enhance the therapeutic efficiency. This study will furnish the prospective tactics for the research of cancer immunotherapy.

The Pivotal Role of Galectin-3 in Viral Infection: A Multifaceted Player in Host-Pathogen Interactions

Galectin-3 (Gal-3), a beta-galactoside-binding lectin, plays a pivotal role in various cellular processes, including immune responses, inflammation, and cancer progression. This comprehensive review aims to elucidate the multifaceted functions of Gal-3, starting with its crucial involvement in viral entry through facilitating viral attachment and catalyzing internalization. Furthermore, Gal-3 assumes significant roles in modulating immune responses, encompassing the activation and recruitment of immune cells, regulation of immune signaling pathways, and orchestration of cellular processes such as apoptosis and autophagy. The impact of Gal-3 extends to the viral life cycle, encompassing critical phases such as replication, assembly, and release. Notably, Gal-3 also contributes to viral pathogenesis, demonstrating involvement in tissue damage, inflammation, and viral persistence and latency elements. A detailed examination of specific viral diseases, including SARS-CoV-2, HIV, and influenza A, underscores the intricate role of Gal-3 in modulating immune responses and facilitating viral adherence and entry. Moreover, the potential of Gal-3 as a biomarker for disease severity, particularly in COVID-19, is considered. Gaining further insight into the mechanisms and roles of Gal-3 in these infections could pave the way for the development of innovative treatment and prevention options for a wide range of viral diseases.

High-Performance Multi-Dynamic Bond Cross-Linked Hydrogel with Spatiotemporal siRNA Delivery for Gene-Cell Combination Therapy of Intervertebral Disc Degeneration

Chronic inflammatory diseases, such as intervertebral disc degeneration (IVDD), which affect the lives of hundreds of millions of people, still lack effective and precise treatments. In this study, a novel hydrogel system with many extraordinary properties is developed for gene-cell combination therapy of IVDD. Phenylboronic acid-modified G5 PAMAM (G5-PBA) is first synthesized, and therapeutic siRNA silencing the expression of P65 mixed with G5-PBA (siRNA@G5-PBA) is then embedded into the hydrogel (siRNA@G5-PBA@Gel) based on multi-dynamic bonds including acyl hydrazone bonds, imine linkage, π-π stacking, and hydrogen bonding interactions. Local and acidic inflammatory microenvironment-responsive gene-drug release can achieve spatiotemporal regulation of gene expression. In addition, gene-drug release from the hydrogel can be sustained for more than 28 days in vitro and in vivo, greatly inhibiting the secretion of inflammatory factors and the subsequent degeneration of nucleus pulposus (NP) cells induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Through prolonged inhibition of the P65/NLRP3 signaling pathway, the siRNA@G5-PBA@Gel is verified to relieve inflammatory storms, which can significantly enhance the regeneration of IVD when combined with cell therapy. Overall, this study proposes an innovative system for gene-cell combination therapy and a precise and minimally invasive treatment method for IVD regeneration.

Differential Expression of Non-Coding RNAs in Stem Cell Development and Therapeutics of Bone Disorders

Stem cells' self-renewal and multi-lineage differentiation are regulated by a complex network consisting of signaling factors, chromatin regulators, transcription factors, and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Diverse role of ncRNAs in stem cell development and maintenance of bone homeostasis have been discovered recently. The ncRNAs, such as long non-coding RNAs, micro RNAs, circular RNAs, small interfering RNA, Piwi-interacting RNAs, etc., are not translated into proteins but act as essential epigenetic regulators in stem cells' self-renewal and differentiation. Different signaling pathways are monitored efficiently by the differential expression of ncRNAs, which function as regulatory elements in determining the fate of stem cells. In addition, several species of ncRNAs could serve as potential molecular biomarkers in early diagnosis of bone diseases, including osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and bone cancers, ultimately leading to the development of new therapeutic strategies. This review aims to explore the specific roles of ncRNAs and their effective molecular mechanisms in the growth and development of stem cells, and in the regulation of osteoblast and osteoclast activities. Furthermore, we focus on and explore the association of altered ncRNA expression with stem cells and bone turnover.

Targeting miRNAs and Other Non-Coding RNAs as a Therapeutic Approach: An Update

Since the discovery of the first microRNAs (miRNAs, miRs), the understanding of miRNA biology has expanded substantially. miRNAs are involved and described as master regulators of the major hallmarks of cancer, including cell differentiation, proliferation, survival, the cell cycle, invasion, and metastasis. Experimental data indicate that cancer phenotypes can be modified by targeting miRNA expression, and because miRNAs act as tumor suppressors or oncogenes (oncomiRs), they have emerged as attractive tools and, more importantly, as a new class of targets for drug development in cancer therapeutics. With the use of miRNA mimics or molecules targeting miRNAs (i.e., small-molecule inhibitors such as anti-miRS), these therapeutics have shown promise in preclinical settings. Some miRNA-targeted therapeutics have been extended to clinical development, such as the mimic of miRNA-34 for treating cancer. Here, we discuss insights into the role of miRNAs and other non-coding RNAs in tumorigenesis and resistance and summarize some recent successful systemic delivery approaches and recent developments in miRNAs as targets for anticancer drug development. Furthermore, we provide a comprehensive overview of mimics and inhibitors that are in clinical trials and finally a list of clinical trials based on miRNAs.

Nanotechnology-enabled gene delivery for cancer and other genetic diseases

INTRODUCTION

Despite gene therapy is ideal for genetic abnormality-related diseases, the easy degradation, poor targeting, and inefficiency in entering targeted cells are plaguing the effective delivery of gene therapy. Viral and non-viral vectors have been used for delivering gene therapeutics in vivo by safeguarding nucleic acid agents to target cells and to reach the specific intracellular location. A variety of nanotechnology-enabled safe and efficient systems have been successfully developed to improve the targeting ability for effective therapeutic delivery of genetic drugs.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we outline the multiple biological barriers associated with gene delivery process, and highlight recent advances to gene therapy strategy in vivo, including gene correction, gene silencing, gene activation and genome editing. We point out current developments and challenges exist of non-viral and viral vector systems in association with chemical and physical gene delivery technologies and their potential for the future.

EXPERT OPINION

This review focuses on the opportunities and challenges to various gene therapy strategy, with specific emphasis on overcoming the challenges through the development of biocompatibility and smart gene vectors for potential clinical application.

Recent findings on miR‑370 expression, regulation and functions in cancer (Review)

MicroRNAs (miRNAs/miRs) are a group of small non‑coding RNAs that serve as post‑transcriptional gene modulators. miRNAs have been demonstrated to serve a pivotal role in carcinogenesis and the dysregulated expression of miRNAs is a well‑understood characteristic of cancer. In recent years, miR‑370 has been established as a key miRNA in various cancers. The expression of miR‑370 is dysregulated in various types of cancer and varies markedly across different tumor types. miR‑370 can regulate multiple biological processes, including cell proliferation, apoptosis, migration, invasion, as well as cell cycle progression and cell stemness. Moreover, it has been reported that miR‑370 affects the response of tumor cells to anticancer treatments. Additionally, the expression of miR‑370 is modulated by multiple factors. The present review summarizes the role and mechanism of miR‑370 in tumors, and demonstrates its potential as a molecular marker for cancer diagnosis and prognosis.