TNF-α Triggers RIP1/FADD/Caspase-8-Mediated Apoptosis of Astrocytes and RIP3/MLKL-Mediated Necroptosis of Neurons Induced by Angiostrongylus cantonensis Infection

BPA exposure and Se deficiency caused spleen damage in chickens by nitrification stress-TNF-α

With the increasing production and demand of plastic products in life, inescapable bisphenol A (BPA) exposure results in a threat to the health of organisms. Selenium (Se) is an essential trace element for living organisms. The insufficient Se intake can cause multi-tissue organ damage. In the process of production and life, the exposure of BPA is usually accompanied by Se deficiency. In this study, the models of chicken with BPA exposure and/or Se deficiency was duplicated, the status of nitrification stress, apoptosis, necroptosis, and changes in TNF-α/FADD signaling pathways in chicken spleen were examined. At the same time, nitrification stress inhibitor and TNF-α inhibitor were introduced into MSB-1 cell model tests in vitro, indicating that BPA exposure and Se deficiency up-regulated TNF-α/FADD signaling pathway through nitrification stress, inducing necroptosis and apoptosis, and heat shock protein was also involved in this process. This study provides a new control idea for healthy poultry breeding based on Se, and also provides a new reference for toxicity control of environmental pollutants.

An oil-in-gel type of organohydrogel loaded with methylprednisolone for the treatment of secondary injuries following spinal cord traumas

The secondary injuries following traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is a multiphasic and complex process that is difficult to treat. Although methylprednisolone (MP) is the only available pharmacological regime for SCI treatment, its efficacy remains controversial due to its very narrow therapeutic time window and safety concerns associated with high dosage. In this study, we have developed an oil-in-gel type of organohydrogel (OHG) in which the binary oleic-water phases coexist, for the local delivery of MP. This new OHG is fabricated by a glycol chitosan/oxidized hyaluronic acid hydrophilic network that is uniformly embedded with a biocompatible oil phase, and it can be effectively loaded with MP or other hydrophobic compounds. In addition to spatiotemporally control MP release, this biodegradable OHG also provides a brain tissue-mimicking scaffold that can promote tissue regeneration. OHG remarkably decreases the therapeutic dose of MP in animals and extends its treatment course over 21 d, thereby timely manipulating microglia/macrophages and their associated with signaling molecules to restore immune homeostasis, leading to a long-term functional improvement in a complete transection SCI rat model. Thus, this OHG represents a new type of gel for clinical treatment of secondary injuries in SCI.

Bioactive components, pharmacological properties and underlying mechanism of Ganoderma lucidum spore oil: A review

Ganoderma lucidum is a Chinese medicinal fungus with a long history of use in healthcare and disease treatment. G. lucidum spores (GLS) are tiny germ cells released from the mushroom cap during the mature stage of growth. They contain all the genetic active substances of G. lucidum. G. lucidum spore oil (GLSO) is a lipid component extracted from broken-walled Ganoderma spores using supercritical CO2 extraction technology. GLSO contains fatty acids, Ganoderma triterpenes, sterols and other bioactive compounds. Previous studies have demonstrated that GLSO has a wide range of pharmacological properties, including anti-tumor, anti-aging, neuroprotection, immunomodulation, hepatoprotection and modulation of metabolic diseases. This review summarizes the research progress of GLSO over the past two decades in terms of its bioactive components, extraction and processing techniques, pharmacological effects and safety evaluation. This provides a solid foundation for further research and application of GLSO.

Non-Coding RNAs and Neurodegenerative Diseases: Information of their Roles in Apoptosis

Apoptosis can be known as a key factor in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. In disease conditions, the rate of apoptosis expands and tissue damage may become apparent. Recently, the scientific studies of the non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) has provided new information of the molecular mechanisms that contribute to neurodegenerative disorders. Numerous reports have documented that ncRNAs have important contributions to several biological processes associated with the increase of neurodegenerative disorders. In addition, microRNAs (miRNAs), circular RNAs (circRNAs), as well as, long ncRNAs (lncRNAs) represent ncRNAs subtypes with the usual dysregulation in neurodegenerative disorders. Dysregulating ncRNAs has been associated with inhibiting or stimulating apoptosis in neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, this review highlighted several ncRNAs linked to apoptosis in neurodegenerative disorders. CircRNAs, lncRNAs, and miRNAs were also illustrated completely regarding the respective signaling pathways of apoptosis.

Identification and coregulation pattern analysis of long noncoding RNAs in the mouse brain after Angiostrongylus cantonensis infection

BACKGROUND

Angiostrongyliasis is a highly dangerous infectious disease. Angiostrongylus cantonensis larvae migrate to the mouse brain and cause symptoms, such as brain swelling and bleeding. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are novel targets for the control of parasitic infections. However, the role of these molecules in A. cantonensis infection has not been fully clarified.

METHODS

In total, 32 BALB/c mice were randomly divided into four groups, and the infection groups were inoculated with 40 A. cantonensis larvae by gavage. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and RNA library construction were performed on brain tissues from infected mice. Differential expression of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) and mRNAs in brain tissues was identified by high-throughput sequencing. The pathways and functions of the differentially expressed lncRNAs were determined by Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and Gene Ontology (GO) analyses. The functions of the differentially expressed lncRNAs were further characterized by lncRNA‒microRNA (miRNA) target interactions. The potential host lncRNAs involved in larval infection of the brain were validated by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT‒PCR).

RESULTS

The pathological results showed that the degree of brain tissue damage increased with the duration of infection. The transcriptome results showed that 859 lncRNAs and 1895 mRNAs were differentially expressed compared with those in the control group, and several lncRNAs were highly expressed in the middle-late stages of mouse infection. GO and KEGG pathway analyses revealed that the differentially expressed target genes were enriched mainly in immune system processes and inflammatory response, among others, and several potential regulatory networks were constructed.

CONCLUSIONS

This study revealed the expression profiles of lncRNAs in the brains of mice after infection with A. cantonensis. The lncRNAs H19, F630028O10Rik, Lockd, AI662270, AU020206, and Mexis were shown to play important roles in the infection of mice with A. cantonensis infection.

Inflammatory and immunopathological differences in brains of permissive and non-permissive hosts with Angiostrongylus cantonensis infection can be identified using 18F/FDG/PET-imaging

BACKGROUND

Angiostrongylus cantonensis is a parasite that mainly infects the heart and pulmonary arteries of rats and causes human eosinophilic meningitis or meningoencephalitis in certain geographical areas. Current diagnostic methods include detection of the parasite in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and eosinophilic immune examination after lumbar puncture, which may be risky and produce false-positive results. 18F- Fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG), a Positron emission tomography (PET) tracer, has been used to assess different pathological or inflammatory changes in the brains of patients. In this study, we hypothesized that A. cantonensis infection-induced inflammatory and immunomodulatory factors of eosinophils result in localized pathological changes in the brains of non-permissive hosts, which could be analyzed using in vivo 18F-FDG PET imaging.

METHODOLOGY/FINDINGS

Non-permissive host ICR mice and permissive host SD rats were infected with A. cantonensis, and the effects of the resulting inflammation on 18F-FDG uptake were characterized using PET imaging. We also quantitatively measured the distributed uptake values of different brain regions to build an evaluated imaging model of localized neuropathological damage caused by eosinophilic inflammation. Our results showed that the uptake of 18F-FDG increased in the cerebellum, brainstem, and limbic system of mice at three weeks post-infection, whereas the uptake in the rat brain was not significant. Immunohistochemical staining and western blotting revealed that Iba-1, a microglia-specific marker, significantly increased in the hippocampus and its surrounding area in mice after three weeks of infection, and then became pronounced after four weeks of infection; while YM-1, an eosinophilic chemotactic factor, in the hippocampus and midbrain, increased significantly from two weeks post-infection, sharply escalated after three weeks of infection, and peaked after four weeks of infection. Cytometric bead array (CBA) analysis revealed that the expression of TNF in the serum of mice increased concomitantly with the prolongation of infection duration. Furthermore, IFN-γ and IL-4 in rat serum were significantly higher than in mouse serum at two weeks post-infection, indicating significantly different immune responses in the brains of rats and mice. We suggest that 18F-FDG uptake in the host brain may be attributed to the accumulation of large numbers of immune cells, especially the metabolic burst of activated eosinophils, which are attracted to and induced by activated microglia in the brain.

CONCLUSIONS

An in vivo 18F-FDG/PET imaging model can be used to evaluate live neuroinflammatory pathological changes in the brains of A. cantonensis-infected mice and rats.

Angiostrongylus cantonensis induces energy imbalance and dyskinesia in mice by reducing the expression of melanin-concentrating hormone

BACKGROUND

Infection with Angiostrongylus cantonensis (AC) in humans or mice can lead to severe eosinophilic meningitis or encephalitis, resulting in various neurological impairments. Developing effective neuroprotective drugs to improve the quality of life in affected individuals is critical.

METHODS

We conducted a Gene Ontology enrichment analysis on microarray gene expression (GSE159486) in the brains of AC-infected mice. The expression levels of melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) were confirmed through real-time quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) and immunofluorescence. Metabolic parameters were assessed using indirect calorimetry, and mice's energy metabolism was evaluated via pathological hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, serum biochemical assays, and immunohistochemistry. Behavioral tests assessed cognitive and motor functions. Western blotting was used to measure the expression of synapse-related proteins. Mice were supplemented with MCH via nasal administration.

RESULTS

Postinfection, a marked decrease in Pmch expression and the encoded MCH was observed. Infected mice exhibited significant weight loss, extensive consumption of sugar and white fat tissue, reduced movement distance, and decreased speed, compared with the control group. Notably, nasal administration of MCH countered the energy imbalance and dyskinesia caused by AC infection, enhancing survival rates. MCH treatment also increased the expression level of postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) and microtubule-associated protein-2 (MAP2), as well as upregulated transcription level of B cell leukemia/lymphoma 2 (Bcl2) in the cortex.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that MCH improves dyskinesia by reducing loss of synaptic proteins, indicating its potential as a therapeutic agent for AC infection.

Cell death in atherosclerosis

A complex and evolutionary process that involves the buildup of lipids in the arterial wall and the invasion of inflammatory cells results in atherosclerosis. Cell death is a fundamental biological process that is essential to the growth and dynamic equilibrium of all living things. Serious cell damage can cause a number of metabolic processes to stop, cell structure to be destroyed, or other irreversible changes that result in cell death. It is important to note that studies have shown that the two types of programmed cell death, apoptosis and autophagy, influence the onset and progression of atherosclerosis by controlling these cells. This could serve as a foundation for the creation of fresh atherosclerosis prevention and treatment strategies. Therefore, in this review, we summarized the molecular mechanisms of cell death, including apoptosis, pyroptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, ferroptosis and necrosis, and discussed their effects on endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells and macrophages in the process of atherosclerosis, so as to provide reference for the next step to reveal the mechanism of atherosclerosis.

Symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage mediates the association between eosinophils and 90-day outcomes after mechanical thrombectomy for acute ischemic stroke

BACKGROUND

Decreased eosinophil level is associated with poor outcomes after mechanical thrombectomy in patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS), but the underlying mechanism of this association is elusive. We aimed to assess the mediation effect of symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage (sICH) on the aforementioned association.

METHODS

A total of 328 consecutive AIS patients undergoing mechanical thrombectomy between May 2017 and March 2021 were analyzed. SICH was defined as any evidence of brain hemorrhage on CT scan with neurological deterioration. Regression analysis was used to assess the effect of eosinophils on sICH, and its effect on poor outcome. Mediation analysis was performed to assess the proportion of total effect by sICH on the association between eosinophils and poor outcome.

RESULTS

Multivariate analysis revealed an independent association between eosinophil count and sICH after adjusting for potential confounders (odds ratio, 0.00; 95% CI, 0.00-0.01; P = 0.0141), which is consistent with the result of eosinophil count (dichotomous) as a categorical variable (odds ratio, 0.22; 95% CI, 0.11-0.46; P < 0.0001). Eosinophil count was negatively associated with poor outcome (odds ratio, 0.00; 95% CI, 0.00-0.02; P = 0.0021). Mediation analysis revealed that sICH partially mediated the negative relationship between eosinophil count and poor outcome (indirect effect=-0.1896; 95%CI: -0.3654 - -0.03, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

This study showed an important effect of sICH on the association between eosinophils and poor outcome.

Host genetic backgrounds: the key to determining parasite-host adaptation

Parasitic diseases pose a significant threat to global public health, particularly in developing countries. Host genetic factors play a crucial role in determining susceptibility and resistance to infection. Recent advances in molecular and biological technologies have enabled significant breakthroughs in understanding the impact of host genes on parasite adaptation. In this comprehensive review, we analyze the host genetic factors that influence parasite adaptation, including hormones, nitric oxide, immune cells, cytokine gene polymorphisms, parasite-specific receptors, and metabolites. We also establish an interactive network to better illustrate the complex relationship between host genetic factors and parasite-host adaptation. Additionally, we discuss future directions and collaborative research priorities in the parasite-host adaptation field, including investigating the impact of host genes on the microbiome, developing more sophisticated models, identifying and characterizing parasite-specific receptors, utilizing patient-derived sera as diagnostic and therapeutic tools, and developing novel treatments and management strategies targeting specific host genetic factors. This review highlights the need for a comprehensive and systematic approach to investigating the underlying mechanisms of parasite-host adaptation, which requires interdisciplinary collaborations among biologists, geneticists, immunologists, and clinicians. By deepening our understanding of the complex interactions between host genetics and parasite adaptation, we can develop more effective and targeted interventions to prevent and treat parasitic diseases. Overall, this review provides a valuable resource for researchers and clinicians working in the parasitology field and offers insights into the future directions of this critical research area.

Synergistic cytotoxicity effect of the combination of chitosan nanoencapsulated imatinib mesylate and quercetin in BCR-ABL positive K562 cells

Objectives

Intolerable side effects and resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs have encouraged scientists to develop new methods of drug combinations with fewer complications. This study aimed to investigate the synergistic effects of quercetin and imatinib encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles on cytotoxicity, apoptosis, and cell growth of the K562 cell line.

Materials and Methods

Imatinib and quercetin were encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles and their physical properties were determined using standard methods and SEM microscope images. BCR-ABL positive K562 cells were cultured in a cell culture medium, cytotoxicity of drugs was determined by MTT assay and the effects of nano drugs on apoptosis in cells were investigated by Annexin V-FITC staining. The expression level of genes associated with apoptosis in cells was measured by real-time PCR.

Results

The IC₅₀ for the combination of the nano drugs at 24 and 48 hr was 9.324 and 10.86 μg/ml, respectively. The data indicated that the encapsulated form of drugs induced apoptosis more effectively than the free form (P<0.05). Moreover, the synergistic effect of nano drugs in statistical analysis was proved (P=0.001). The combination of nano drugs resulted in the caspase 3, 8, and TP53 genes upregulation (P=0.001).

Conclusion

The results of the present study showed that the encapsulated form of imatinib and quercetin nano drugs with chitosan has more cytotoxicity than the free form of the drugs. In addition, the combination of imatinib and quercetin as a nano-drug complex has a synergistic effect on the induction of apoptosis in imatinib-resistant K562 cells.

Necroptosis in CNS diseases: Focus on astrocytes

In the last few years, necroptosis, a recently described type of cell death, has been reported to play an important role in the development of various brain pathologies. Necroptosis is a cell death mechanism that has morphological characteristics similar to necrosis but is mediated by fundamentally different molecular pathways. Necroptosis is initiated by signaling through the interaction of RIP1/RIP3/MLKL proteins (receptor-interacting protein kinase 1/receptor-interacting protein kinase 3/mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein). RIPK1 kinase is usually inactive under physiological conditions. It is activated by stimulation of death receptors (TNFR1, TNFR2, TLR3, and 4, Fas-ligand) by external signals. Phosphorylation of RIPK1 results in the formation of its complex with death receptors. Further, complexes with the second member of the RIP3 and MLKL cascade appear, and the necroptosome is formed. There is enough evidence that necroptosis plays an important role in the pathogenesis of brain ischemia and neurodegenerative diseases. In recent years, a point of view that both neurons and glial cells can play a key role in the development of the central nervous system (CNS) pathologies finds more and more confirmation. Astrocytes play complex roles during neurodegeneration and ischemic brain damage initiating both impair and protective processes. However, the cellular and molecular mechanisms that induce pathogenic activity of astrocytes remain veiled. In this review, we consider these processes in terms of the initiation of necroptosis. On the other hand, it is important to remember that like other types of programmed cell death, necroptosis plays an important role for the organism, as it induces a strong immune response and is involved in the control of cancerogenesis. In this review, we provide an overview of the complex role of necroptosis as an important pathogenetic component of neuronal and astrocyte death in neurodegenerative diseases, epileptogenesis, and ischemic brain damage.

Astragaloside IV, as a potential anticancer agent

Cancer is a global intractable disease, and its morbidity and mortality are increasing year by year in developing countries. Surgery and chemotherapy are often used to treat cancer, but they result in unsatisfactory outcomes, such as severe side effects and drug resistance. With the accelerated modernization of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), an increasing body of evidence has shown that several TCM components have significant anticancer activities. Astragaloside IV (AS-IV) is considered the main active ingredient of the dried root of Astragalus membranaceus. AS-IV exhibits various pharmacological effects, such as anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antifibrotic, and anticancer activities. AS-IV possesses a wide range of activities, such as the modulation of reactive oxygen species-scavenging enzyme activities, participation in cell cycle arrest, induction of apoptosis and autophagy, and suppression of cancer cell proliferation, invasiveness, and metastasis. These effects are involved in the inhibition of different malignant tumors, such as lung, liver, breast, and gastric cancers. This article reviews the bioavailability, anticancer activity, and mechanism of AS-IV and provides suggestions for further research of this TCM.

Role of Necroptosis in Central Nervous System Diseases

Necroptosis is a type of precisely regulated necrotic cell death activated in caspase-deficient conditions. Multiple factors initiate the necroptotic signaling pathway, including toll-like receptor 3/4, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), dsRNA viruses, and T cell receptors. Presently, TNF-induced necroptosis via the phosphorylation of three key proteins, receptor-interacting protein kinase 1, receptor-interacting protein kinase 3, and mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein, is the best-characterized process. Necroptosis induced by Z-DNA-binding protein 1 (ZBP-1) and toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR)-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon (TRIF) plays a significant role in infectious diseases, such as influenza A virus, Zika virus, and herpesvirus infection. An increasing number of studies have demonstrated the close association of necroptosis with multiple diseases, and disrupting necroptosis has been confirmed to be effective for treating (or managing) these diseases. The central nervous system (CNS) exhibits unique physiological structures and immune characteristics. Necroptosis may occur without the sequential activation of signal proteins, and the necroptosis of supporting cells has more important implications in disease development. Additionally, necroptotic signals can be activated in the absence of necroptosis. Here, we summarize the role of necroptosis and its signal proteins in CNS diseases and characterize typical necroptosis regulators to provide a basis for the further development of therapeutic strategies for treating such diseases. In the present review, relevant information has been consolidated from recent studies (from 2010 until the present), excluding the patents in this field.

Tannic acid through ROS/TNF-α/TNFR 1 antagonizes atrazine induced apoptosis, programmed necrosis and immune dysfunction of grass carp hepatocytes

Atrazine (ATR) is a commonly used triazine herbicide, which will remain in the water source, soil and biological muscle tissue for a long time, threatening the survival of related organisms and future generations. Tannic acid (TAN), a glucosyl compound found in gallnuts, has previously been shown to antagonize heavy metal toxicity, antioxidant activity, and inflammation. However, it is unclear whether TAN can antagonize ATR-induced Grass carp hepatocytes (L8824 cells) cytotoxicity. Therefore, we treated L8824 cells with 3 μg mL^-1 ATR for 24 h to establish a toxic group model. The experimental data of flow cytometry and AO/EB staining together showed that the ratio of apoptosis and necrosis in L8824 cells after ATR exposure was significantly higher than that in the control group. Furthermore, RT-qPCR showed that inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, INF-γ) were up-regulated and antimicrobial peptides (hepcidin, β-defensin and LEAP2) were induced down-regulated in L8824 cells, leading to immune dysfunction. The measurement results of oxidative stress-related indicators showed that the levels of ROS and MDA increased after ATR exposure, the overall anti-oxidative system was down-regulated. Western blotting confirmed that TNF-α/TNFR 1-related genes were also up-regulated. This indicates that ATR stimulates oxidative stress in L8824 cells, which in turn promotes the binding of TNF-α to TNFR 1. In addition, TRADD, FADD, Caspase-3, P53, RIP1, RIP3 and MLKL were found to be significantly up-regulated by Western blotting and RT-qPCR. Conditioned after ATR exposure compared to controls. It indicates that ATR activates apoptosis and necrosis of TNF-α/TNFR 1 pathway by inducing oxidative stress in L8824 cells. Furthermore, the use of TAN (5 μM) significantly alleviated the toxic effects of ATR on L8824 cells mentioned above. In conclusion, TAN restrains ATR-induced apoptosis, programmed necrosis and immune dysfunction through the ROS/TNF-α/TNFR 1 pathway.

The Role of PTEN/PI3K/AKT Signaling Pathway in Apoptosis of Liver Cells in Cocks with Manganese Toxicity

PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway is an important pathway for cell proliferation and apoptosis. Exposure to excess manganese (Mn) can cause damage in organisms. However, whether Mn toxicity can cause apoptosis is still not clear. In order to explore the mechanism of PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway responsible for Mn-induced apoptotic injury, 160 Hyline cocks were divided into four groups; there were the control group (Con group), the low-dose Mn group (L group), the medium-dose Mn group (M group), and the high-dose Mn group (H group). The cocks in Con group, L group, M group, and H group were fed with MnCl₂ diet containing 100, 600, 900, and 1800 mg/kg, respectively. The growth status of cocks in each group was observed on days 30, 60, and 90. Thirty cocks were randomly selected from each group and sacrificed on day 90 for optical microscope observation and fluorescence microscopic observation, as well as for transcription-level expression of apoptosis-related genes and heat shock proteins (HSPs) in the liver. The results showed that the growth status of cocks was gradually depressed with the extension of feeding time and with the increase of Mn dose_. On day 90, the results of optical microscope observation and fluorescence microscope observation showed that damage and apoptosis appeared in the cock liver cells under Mn exposure groups. The results of transcription-level detection of apoptosis-related genes and HSPs indicated that Mn exposure upregulated eleven pro-apoptotic genes (including RIP1, RIP3, MLKL, Bax, Caspase-3, FADD, Cyt-C, ERK, JNK, Caspase-8, and P38) and downregulated one anti-apoptotic gene Bcl-2, further meaning that exposure to Mn-induced apoptosis in cock liver cells and PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway took part in molecular mechanism of apoptosis caused by excess Mn. Moreover, in our experiment, the increase of four HSPs (including HSP27, HSP40, HSP60, and HSP70) was found after Mn treatment for 90 days, which indicated that Mn stress triggered HSPs and HSPs were involved in molecular mechanism of Mn poisoning in cock livers. In addition, we also found there was upregulated dose-dependent manner in fifteen detected genes and there was downregulated dose-dependent manner in Bcl-2, indicating that the apoptosis caused by Mn poisoning in cock liver cells was dose-dependent.

Effect of S-Nitrosylation of RIP3 Induced by Cerebral Ischemia on its Downstream Signaling Pathway

OBJECTIVES

Our preliminary experiments indicate that receptor-interacting protein 3 (RIP3) is S-nitrosylated and contributes to its autophosphorylation (activation) after 3 h of rat brain ischemia/reperfusion mediated by activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-dependent neuronal NO synthase (nNOS) and is involved in the process of neuronal injury. Here, we will to demonstrate whether S-nitrosylation of RIP3 facilitates the activation of the downstream signaling pathway and finally exacerbates ischemic neuron death.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Adult male Sprague-Dawley rat transient brain ischemia/reperfusion and cortical neurons oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD)/reoxygenation models were performed. The hippocampal CA1 regions or cultured cells were homogenized and the cytosolic fraction were collected as tissue samples. Coimmunoprecipitation and western blot analysis were carried out for detecting phosphorylation of RIP1 and mixed lineage kinase-like domains (MLKL) and the Cleaved-Caspase8 (Cl-Caspase8). The activities of Glycogen phosphorylase (PYGL), Glutamate-ammonia ligase (GLUL) and Glutamate dehydrogenase (GLUD1) were detected with ultraviolet absorption method.

RESULTS

This study showed that active RIP3 could phosphorylate RIP1 and MLKL through its kinase activity, promote the conversion of Caspase8 to active Cl-Caspase8, enhance the activities of PYGL, GLUL and GLUD1, and finally aggravate neuronal injury in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. The inhibition of RIP3 S-nitrosylation inhibited the phosphorylation of RIP1 and MLKL, inhibited the activities of Caspase8, PYGL, GLUL, and GLUD1, and alleviated neuronal damage in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion.

CONCLUSIONS

S-nitrosylation of RIP3 increased RIP1 and MLKL phosphorylation levels, Cl-Caspase8 content and PYGL, GLUL and GLUD1 activities and aggravated neuronal damage during cerebral ischemia/reperfusion and regulating the S-nitrosylation of RIP3 and its downstream signaling pathway might be a therapeutic target for stroke.

Differences of Key Proteins between Apoptosis and Necroptosis

Many different types of programmed cell death (PCD) have been identified, including apoptosis and necroptosis. Apoptosis is a type of cell death that is controlled by various genes. It is in charge of eliminating aberrant cells such as cancer cells, replenishing normal cells, and molding the body as it develops. Necroptosis is a type of programmed cell death that combines necrosis and apoptosis. In other words, it takes on a necrotic appearance, although cells die in a controlled manner. Various investigations of these two pathways have revealed that caspase-8, receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), and RIPK3 are crucial proteins in charge of the switching between these two pathways, resulting in the activation or inhibition of necroptosis. In this review, we have summarized the key proteins between apoptosis and necroptosis.

The role of necroptosis in disease and treatment

Necroptosis, a distinctive type of programmed cell death different from apoptosis or necrosis, triggered by a series of death receptors such as tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1), TNFR2, and Fas. In case that apoptosis process is blocked, necroptosis pathway is initiated with the activation of three key downstream mediators which are receptor-interacting serine/threonine protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), RIPK3, and mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL). The whole process eventually leads to destruction of the cell membrane integrity, swelling of organelles, and severe inflammation. Over the past decade, necroptosis has been found widely involved in life process of human beings and animals. In this review, we attempt to explore the therapeutic prospects of necroptosis regulators by describing its molecular mechanism and the role it played in pathological condition and tissue homeostasis, and to summarize the research and clinical applications of corresponding regulators including small molecule inhibitors, chemicals, Chinese herbal extracts, and biological agents in the treatment of various diseases.

Doxorubicin-Induced Cognitive Impairment: The Mechanistic Insights

Chemotherapy can significantly prolong the survival of patients with breast cancer; Nevertheless, the majority of patients receiving chemotherapy such as doxorubicin may have cognitive deficits that manifest as impairments in learning, reasoning, attention, and memory. The phenomenon of chemotherapy-induced cognitive decline is termed as chemotherapy-related cognitive impairment (CRCI) or chemo-brain. Doxorubicin (DOX), a commonly used drug in adjuvant chemotherapy for patients with breast cancer, has been reported to induce chemo-brain through a variety of mechanisms including DNA damage, oxidative stress, inflammation, dysregulation of apoptosis and autophagy, changes in neurotransmitter levels, mitochondrial dysfunction, glial cell interactions, neurogenesis inhibition, and epigenetic factors. These mechanisms do not operate independently but are inter-related, coordinately contributing to the development of chemo-brain. Here we review the relationships of these mechanisms and pathways in attempt to provide mechanistic insights into the doxorubicin-induced cognitive impairment.