CXCR4/CXCL12 expression profile is associated with tumor microenvironment and clinical outcome of liver metastases of colorectal cancer

The Therapeutic Potential of Physical Exercise in Cancer: The Role of Chemokines

The global increase in cancer cases and mortality has been associated with inflammatory processes, in which chemokines play crucial roles. These molecules, a subfamily of cytokines, are essential for the migration, adhesion, interaction, and positioning of immune cells throughout the body. Chemokines primarily originate in response to pathogenic stimuli and inflammatory cytokines. They are expressed by lymphocytes in the bloodstream and are divided into four classes (CC, CXC, XC, and CX3C), playing multifaceted roles in the tumor environment (TME). In the TME, chemokines regulate immune behavior by recruiting cells such as tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), which promote tumor survival. Additionally, they directly influence tumor behavior, promoting pathological angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis. On the other hand, chemokines can also induce antitumor responses by mobilizing CD8+ T cells and natural killer (NK) cells to the tumor, reducing pro-inflammatory chemokines and enhancing essential antitumor responses. Given the complex interaction between chemokines, the immune system, angiogenic factors, and metastasis, it becomes evident how important it is to target these pathways in therapeutic interventions to counteract cancer progression. In this context, physical exercise emerges as a promising strategy due to its role modulating the expression of anti-inflammatory chemokines and enhancing the antitumor response. Aerobic and resistance exercises have been associated with a beneficial inflammatory profile in cancer, increased infiltration of CD8+ T cells in the TME, and improvement of intratumoral vasculature. This creates an environment less favorable to tumor growth and supports the circulation of antitumor immune cells and chemokines. Therefore, understanding the impact of exercise on the expression of chemokines can provide valuable insights for therapeutic interventions in cancer treatment and prevention.

The Value of Chemokine and Chemokine Receptors in Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Immunotherapy of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Background

Chemokines and chemokine receptors (CCRs) are involved in a variety of anti-tumour and pro-tumour immune processes in vivo, such as angiogenesis, metastasis, proliferation and invasiveness, and influence patient prognosis and response to therapy.

Methods

CCRs differentially expressed in HCC and associated with prognosis were extracted from TCGA and GEO databases, and the obtained CCRs were then used to construct signature genes, and the signature gene were selected for expression validation as well as functional experiments to explore the role of CCRs in the treatment and prognosis of HCC.

Results

We constructed a prognostic model including five CCRs (CCL20, CCL23, CCR3, CCR10, and CXCR3) and validated the expression of signature genes. The model's risk score is an independent prognostic factor for HCC. We have also developed prognostic model nomograms for clinical use. In addition, we validated that CCR3 expression is associated with poor prognosis in HCC, and the proliferation and migration ability of HCC cells was significantly inhibited after interfering with the expression of CCR3 in MHCC-LM3. We also looked at differences in pathway enrichment, immune infiltration and immune checkpoints. Finally, we found that risk scores were also correlated with drug sensitivity, the high-risk group had a better sensitivity to sorafenib.

Conclusion

The CCRs-related gene signature may better assess HCC prognosis and response to immunotherapy and tyrosine kinase inhibitors such as sorafenib in HCC, providing prospective solutions for diagnosis and treatment.

Chemo-radiotherapy with 177Lu-PLGA(RGF)-CXCR4L for the targeted treatment of colorectal cancer

Introduction

More than 1.9 million new cases of colorectal cancer and 935,000 deaths were estimated to have occurred worldwide in 2020. Therapies for metastatic colorectal cancer include cytotoxic chemotherapy and targeted therapies in multiple lines of treatment. Nevertheless, the optimal use of these agents has not yet been resolved. Regorafenib (RGF) is an Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-authorized multikinase inhibitor indicated for patients with metastatic colorectal cancer, non-responding to priority lines of chemotherapy and immunotherapy. Nanoparticles have been used in specific applications, such as site-specific drug delivery systems, cancer therapy, and clinical bioanalytical diagnostics. C-X-C Chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) is the most widely-expressed chemokine receptor in more than 23 human cancer types, including colorectal cancer. This research aimed to synthesize and preclinically evaluate a targeted nanosystem for colorectal cancer chemo-radiotherapy using RGF encapsulated in Poly(D,L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles coated with a CXCR4 ligand (CXCR4L) and 177Lu as a therapeutic β-emitter.

Methods

Empty PLGA and PLGA(RGF) nanoparticles were prepared using the microfluidic method, followed by the DOTA and CXCR4L functionalization and nanoparticle radiolabeling with 177Lu. The final nanosystem gave a particle size of 280 nm with a polydispersity index of 0.347. In vitro and in vivo toxicity effects were assessed using the HCT116 colorectal cancer cell line.

Results

177Lu-PLGA(RGF)-CXCR4L nanoparticles decreased cell viability and proliferation by inhibiting Erk and Akt phosphorylation and promoting apoptosis. Moreover, in vivo administration of 177Lu-PLGA(RGF)-CXCR4L significantly reduced tumor growth in an HCT116 colorectal cancer xenograft model. The biokinetic profile showed hepatic and renal elimination.

Discussion

Data obtained in this research justify additional preclinical safety trials and the clinical evaluation of 177Lu-PLGA(RGF)-CXCR4L as a potential combined treatment of colorectal cancer.

CX3CR1 Acts as a Protective Biomarker in the Tumor Microenvironment of Colorectal Cancer

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an important role in the pathogenesis of many cancers. We aimed to screen the TME-related hub genes of colorectal adenoma (CRAD) and identify possible prognostic biomarkers. The gene expression profiles and clinical data of 464 CRAD patients in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database were downloaded. The Estimation of STromal and Immune cells in MAlignant Tumours using Expression data (ESTIMATE) algorithm was performed to calculate the ImmuneScore, StromalScore, and EstimateScore. Thereafter, differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened. Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway, and protein–protein interaction (PPI) analysis were performed to explore the roles of DEGs. Furthermore, univariate and multivariate Cox analyses were accomplished to identify independent prognostic factors of CRAD. CX3CR1 was selected as a hub gene, and the expression was confirmed in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients and cell lines. The correlations between CX3CR1 and tumor-infiltrating immune cells were estimated by Tumor IMmune Estimation Resource database (TIMER) and CIBERSORT analysis. Besides, we investigated the effects of coculture with THP-1-derived macrophages with HCT8 cells with low CX3CR1 expression on immune marker expression, cell viability, and migration. There were significant differences in the ImmuneScore and EstimateScore among different stages. Patients with low scores presented significantly lower lifetimes than those in the high-score group. Moreover, we recognized 1,578 intersection genes in ImmuneScore and StromalScore, and these genes were mainly enriched in numerous immune-related biological processes. CX3CR1 was found to be associated with immune cell infiltration levels, immune marker expression, and macrophage polarization. Simultaneous silencing of CX3CR1 and coculture with THP-1 cells further regulated macrophage polarization and promoted the cell proliferation and migration of CRC cells. CX3CR1 was decreased in CRAD tissues and cell lines and was related to T and N stages, tumor differentiation, and prognosis. Our results suggest that CX3CR1 contributes to the recruitment and regulation of immune-infiltrating cells and macrophage polarization in CRC and TAM-induced CRC progression. CX3CR1 may act as a prognostic biomarker in CRC.

SDF-1 expression after preoperative chemoradiotherapy is associated with prognosis in patients with advanced lower rectal cancer

Stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) expression is associated with cancer progression, as a biomarker of prognosis. We clarified the significance of SDF-1 expression on chemoradiotherapy (CRT) resistance and prognosis in advanced lower rectal cancer patients. We evaluated 98 patients with advanced lower rectal cancer who underwent preoperative CRT. All patients received 40 Gy of radiation therapy, with concurrent chemotherapy containing fluorinated pyrimidines, followed by surgical resection. SDF-1 expression in surgical specimens was examined by immunohistochemistry. We divided the patients into SDF-1-positive- (n = 52) and SDF-1-negative groups (n = 46) and compared the clinicopathological factors and survival rates. The SDF-1-positive group was more resistant to CRT than the SDF-1-negative group (non-responder rate, 63.5% vs. 47.8%, respectively ; p = 0.12). Overall survival (OS) in the SDF-1 positive group was significantly poorer vs. the SDF-1-negative group (5-year OS, 73.4% vs. 88.0%, respectively ; p = 0.02), and disease-free survival (DFS) was worse (5-year DFS, 61.0% vs. 74.1%, respectively ; p = 0.07). Multivariate analysis confirmed that SDF-1 expression was a significant independent prognostic predictor of OS (p = 0.04). SDF-1 expression after preoperative CRT is significantly associated with a poor prognosis in advanced lower rectal cancer patients and is a promising biomarker. J. Med. Invest. 68 : 309-314, August, 2021.

CXCL12-CXCR4/CXCR7 Axis in Colorectal Cancer: Therapeutic Target in Preclinical and Clinical Studies

Chemokines are chemotactic cytokines that promote cancer growth, metastasis, and regulate resistance to chemotherapy. Stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF1) also known as C-X-C motif chemokine 12 (CXCL12), a prognostic factor, is an extracellular homeostatic chemokine that is the natural ligand for chemokine receptors C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4), also known as fusin or cluster of differentiation 184 (CD184) and chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR7). CXCR4 is the most widely expressed rhodopsin-like G protein coupled chemokine receptor (GPCR). The CXCL12-CXCR4 axis is involved in tumor growth, invasion, angiogenesis, and metastasis in colorectal cancer (CRC). CXCR7, recently termed as atypical chemokine receptor 3 (ACKR3), is amongst the G protein coupled cell surface receptor family that is also commonly expressed in a large variety of cancer cells. CXCR7, like CXCR4, regulates immunity, angiogenesis, stem cell trafficking, cell growth and organ-specific metastases. CXCR4 and CXCR7 are expressed individually or together, depending on the tumor type. When expressed together, CXCR4 and CXCR7 can form homo- or hetero-dimers. Homo- and hetero-dimerization of CXCL12 and its receptors CXCR4 and CXCR7 alter their signaling activity. Only few drugs have been approved for clinical use targeting CXCL12-CXCR4/CXCR7 axis. Several CXCR4 inhibitors are in clinical trials for solid tumor treatment with limited success whereas CXCR7-specific inhibitors are still in preclinical studies for CRC. This review focuses on current knowledge of chemokine CXCL12 and its receptors CXCR4 and CXCR7, with emphasis on targeting the CXCL12-CXCR4/CXCR7 axis as a treatment strategy for CRC.

Prognostic Significance of CXCR4 in Colorectal Cancer: An Updated Meta-Analysis and Critical Appraisal

Simple Summary

C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4), a G-protein-coupled receptor, has been demonstrated to stimulate proliferation and invasiveness of many different tumors, including colorectal cancer. Through in vitro evidence, overexpression of CXCR4 has been identified as a negative prognostic factor in colorectal cancer. The identification of prognostic biomarkers can improve the prediction of disease evolution and disease characterization, and guide treatment efforts. This systematic review with a meta-analysis was conducted to pool hazard ratios from prognostic studies on CXCR4, provide an updated estimate of prognostic power of CXCR4, and analyze modalities of evaluating and reporting CXCR4 expression.

Abstract

Background: This study was conducted to provide an updated estimate of the prognostic power of C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) in colorectal cancer (CRC), and analyze modalities of evaluating and reporting its expression. Methods: A systematic review with meta-analysis was performed and described according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement. Studies were identified through PubMed and Google Scholar. The pooled hazard ratios (HRs) for overall survival (OS) or progression-free survival (PFS) with 95% confidence interval (CI) were estimated with the random-effect model. Results: Sixteen studies were selected covering a period from 2005 to 2020. An immunohistochemical evaluation of CXCR4 was performed in all studies. Only in three studies assessment of mRNA through RT–PCR was correlated with prognosis; in the remaining studies, the authors identified prognostic categories based on immunohistochemical expression. In pooled analyses, significant associations were found between positive or high or strong expression of CXCR4 and T stage ≥3 (P = 0.0001), and positive or high or strong expression of CXCR4 and left side primary tumor localization (P = 0.0186). The pooled HR for OS was 2.09 (95% CI: 1.30–2.88) in favor of high CXCR4 expression; for PFS, it was 1.42 (95% CI: 1.13–1.71) in favor of high CXCR4 expression. Conclusion: High CXCR4 expression is clearly associated with increased risk of death and progression in CRC. However, strong methodologic heterogeneity in CXCR4 assessment hinders direct translation into clinical practice; thus, a consensus to streamline detection and scoring of CXCR4 expression in CRC is indicated.

Role of chemokines in hepatocellular carcinoma (Review)

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a prevalent malignant tumor worldwide, with an unsatisfactory prognosis, although treatments are improving. One of the main challenges for the treatment of HCC is the prevention or management of recurrence and metastasis of HCC. It has been found that chemokines and their receptors serve a pivotal role in HCC progression. In the present review, the literature on the multifactorial roles of exosomes in HCC from PubMed, Cochrane library and Embase were obtained, with a specific focus on the functions and mechanisms of chemokines in HCC. To date, >50 chemokines have been found, which can be divided into four families: CXC, CX3C, CC and XC, according to the different positions of the conserved N‑terminal cysteine residues. Chemokines are involved in the inflammatory response, tumor immune response, proliferation, invasion and metastasis via modulation of various signaling pathways. Thus, chemokines and their receptors directly or indirectly shape the tumor cell microenvironment, and regulate the biological behavior of the tumor. In addition, the potential application of chemokines in chemotaxis of exosomes as drug vehicles is discussed. Exosomes containing chemokines or expressing receptors for chemokines may improve chemotaxis to HCC and may thus be exploited for targeted drug delivery.

Prognostic significance of CD8+ T-cells density in stage III colorectal cancer depends on SDF-1 expression

Since colorectal cancer (CRC) remains one of the most common malignancies, a tremendous amount of studies keep taking place in this field. Over the past 25 years, a notable part of the scientific community has focused on the association between the immune system and colorectal cancer. A variety of studies have shown that high densities of infiltrating CD8+ T-cells are associated with improved disease-free and overall survival in CRC. Stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) is a protein that regulates leukocyte trafficking and is variably expressed in several healthy and malignant tissues. There is strong evidence that SDF-1 has a negative prognostic impact on a variety of solid tumors. However, the existing data do not provide sufficient evidence that the expression of SDF-1 has an influence on CRC. Knowing nowadays, that the microenvironment plays a crucial role in the development of cancer, we hypothesized that the expression of SDF-1 in CRC could influence the prognostic significance of CD8+ T-cells, as an indicator of the essential role of the immune microenvironment in cancer development. Therefore, we explored the combined prognostic significance of CD8+ T-cell density and SDF-1 expression in a large CRC collective. We analyzed a tissue microarray of 613 patient specimens of primary CRCs by immunohistochemistry (IHC) for the CD8 + T-cells density and the expression of SDF-1 by tumor cells and tumor-infiltrating immune cells. Besides, we analyzed the expression of SDF-1 at the RNA level in The Cancer Genome Atlas cohort. We found that the combined high CD8+ T-cell infiltration and expression of SDF-1 shows a favorable 5-year overall survival rate (66%; 95% CI 48-79%) compared to tumors showing a high expression of CD8+ T-cell only (55%; 95% CI 45-64%; p = 0.0004). After stratifying the patients in nodal negative and positive groups, we found that the prognostic significance of CD8+ T-cell density in nodal positive colorectal cancer depends on SDF-1 expression. Univariate and multivariate Hazard Cox regression survival analysis considering the combination of both markers revealed that the combined high expression of SDF-1 and CD8+ T-cell density was an independent, favorable, prognostic marker for overall survival (HR = 0.34, 95% CI 0.17-0.66; p = 0.002 and HR = 0.45, 95% CI 0.23-0.89; p = 0.021, respectively). In our cohort there was a very weak correlation between SDF-1 and CD8+ T-cells (rs = 0.13, p = 0.002) and in the trascriptomic expression of these two immune markers display a weak correlation (rs = 0.28, p < 0.001) which was significantly more pronounced in stage III cancers (rs = 0.40, p < 0.001). The combination of high CD8+ T-cell density and expression of SDF-1 represents an independent, favorable, prognostic condition in CRC, mostly in patients with stage III disease.

The Role of the CXCL12/CXCR4/CXCR7 Chemokine Axis in Cancer

Chemokines are a family of small, secreted cytokines which regulate a variety of cell functions. The C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) binds to C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) and C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR7). The interaction of CXCL12 and its receptors subsequently induces downstream signaling pathways with broad effects on chemotaxis, cell proliferation, migration, and gene expression. Accumulating evidence suggests that the CXCL12/CXCR4/CXCR7 axis plays a pivotal role in tumor development, survival, angiogenesis, metastasis, and tumor microenvironment. In addition, this chemokine axis promotes chemoresistance in cancer therapy via complex crosstalk with other pathways. Multiple small molecules targeting CXCR4/CXCR7 have been developed and used for preclinical and clinical cancer treatment. In this review, we describe the roles of the CXCL12/CXCR4/CXCR7 axis in cancer progression and summarize strategies to develop novel targeted cancer therapies.

CXCR4/TGF-β1 mediated self-differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells to carcinoma-associated fibroblasts and promoted colorectal carcinoma development

Background: Tumor microenvironment (TME) is a crucial part of tumor hallmarks. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), important components of TME, are the main source of Carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), but the mechanism of transformation regulation is still unclear. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), chemokine Stromal cell-derived factor-1 (SDF-1) and its endogenous receptor CXCR4 may play important roles during this process.Methods: Co-culture technique was used to explore the effects of MSCs on the proliferation, migration and invasion of colorectal carcinoma (CRC) cells and how they induced MSCs to differentiate into CAFs. The expression of α-SMA, Vimentin, S100A4 and FAP were detected as CAFs markers. Inhibitors AMD3100 and cyclophosphamide (Cy) were pre-treated in MSCs to verify the functions of CXCR4/TGF-β1. Finally, the xenograft models in nude mice were generated to further verify this process in vivo.Results: MSCs promoted the CRCs proliferation, invasion and migration, and induced SDF-1 expression and secretion, which dramatically up-regulated CXCR4 and TGF-β1 expression in MSCs. The levels of CAFs markers elevated in MSCs, indicating CAFs differentiation occurred in MSCs. AMD3100 and Cy treatment significantly blocked this differentiation process of MSCs by suppressing CXCR4 expression and TGF-β1 secretion. In vivo xenograft experiments also demonstrated that MSCs promoted differentiation into CAFs through CXCR4/TGF-β1 signaling in either primary tumor tissues or hepatic metastatic tissues of CRC.Conclusion: Our studies have revealed the essential role of CXCR4/TGF-β1 axis playing in the transformation of tumor microenvironment by mediating MSCs differentiation into CAFs, promoting CRCs growth and metastasis.

CXCR4 as a prognostic biomarker in gastrointestinal cancer: a meta-analysis

Background: CXCR4 is a member of the C-X-C chemokine receptor family, which is associated with multiple types of cancer. Although it has been widely reported, the prognostic value of CXCR4 expression in gastrointestinal (GI) cancer remains controversial. Methods: A meta-analysis was conducted to investigate the relationship between CXCR4 and prognosis of patients with GI cancer. Subgroup analysis was also performed according to tumour subtypes and heterogeneity test. Results: A total of 24 studies including 3637 cases suggested that overexpression of CXCR4 is significantly associated with overall survival (OS) for patients with GI cancer (HR = 1.71, 95% CI = 1.45-2.03, p = 0.000). Subgroup analysis also indicated that high CXCR4 expression in oesophagus, gastric and colorectal cancer all predicted a worse prognosis (HR = 1.52, 95% CI = 1.26-1.84, p = 0.001 for oesophagus cancer; HR = 1.59, 95% CI = 1.10-2.30, p = 0.015 for gastric cancer; HR = 2.21, 95% CI = 1.56-3.14, p = 0.000 for colorectal cancer). Conclusions: CXCR4 may serve as a prognostic indicator in GI cancer patients.

Radionuclide-Labeled Peptides for Imaging and Treatment of CXCR4- Overexpressing Malignant Tumors

Malignant tumors are a major cause of death. The lack of methods that provide an early diagnosis and adequate treatment of cancers is the main obstacle to precision medicine. The C-X-C chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) is overexpressed in various tumors and plays a key role in tumor pathogenesis. Therefore, CXCR4-targeted molecular imaging can quickly and accurately detect and quantify CXCR4 abnormalities in real time. The expression level and activation status of CXCR4 are very important for screening susceptible populations and providing an accurate diagnosis and optimal treatment. In view of the fact that radionuclide-labeled peptides have become widely used for the diagnosis and treatment of tumors, this manuscript reviews the potential of different radionuclide-labeled peptide inhibitors for the targeted imaging of CXCR4- positive tumors and targeted treatment. The article also discusses the specificity and in vivo distribution of radionuclide-labeled peptide inhibitors, and translation of these inhibitors to the clinic.

Systematic Review of the Prognostic Role of the Immune System After Surgery of Colorectal Liver Metastases

Background: The current prognostication of patient survival after surgery for colorectal liver metastases is based on clinical characteristics, but low accuracy makes it difficult to guide treatment for the individual patient. Rapidly evolving technologies have led to the expectation that biomarkers will be able to outperform the current clinical scoring systems and provide more effective personalised treatment. Two main topics prevail in cancer treatment, namely the role of the immune system and the prediction and prognostication by application of high-throughput methodology. The aim of this review is to examine the evidence for prognostic immunological and molecular markers studied in tumour tissue obtained at surgical resection for colorectal liver metastases.

Methods: First we analysed immunophenotypical protein markers, that are mainly studied by immunohistochemistry. Second, we review molecular markers by analysing high-throughput studies on tumour mRNA and microRNA expression.

Results: CD3, CD4, and CD8 are the most frequently studied protein markers. High intra-tumoural CD3+ T cell infiltration and low CXCR4 expression have the best association with favourable patient survival. Studies that analysed microRNA or mRNA expression data showed very little overlap in prognostic genes.

Conclusions: Patient prognostication after surgery for colorectal liver metastases by analysing the immune system remains difficult. Current data are based on diverse and heterogeneous patient populations which prohibits drawing firm conclusions.

Prognostic Value of CD133 and SOX2 in Advanced Cancer

BACKGROUND

The prognostic value of CD133 and SOX2 expression in advanced cancer remains unclear. This study was first conducted to investigate the association between CD133 or SOX2 positivity and clinical outcomes for advanced cancer patients.

METHODS

Hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated to evaluate the correlation between CD133 or SOX2 positivity and overall survival (OS), disease-free survival (DFS), progression-free survival (PFS), cancer-specific survival (CSS), or recurrence-free survival (RFS) from multivariable analysis. Trial sequential analysis (TSA) was also performed.

RESULTS

13 studies with 1358 cases (CD133) and five studies with 433 cases (SOX2) were identified. CD133 positivity was correlated with worse CSS and OS, but there was no correlation between CD133 positivity and DFS. SOX2 positivity was associated with poor DFS and RFS but was not linked to PFS. Stratified analysis by study source showed that only CD133 positivity can decrease OS for Chinese patients. Stratified analysis by treatment regimens indicated that CD133 positivity was linked to poor OS in patients treated with adjuvant therapy. TSA showed that additional studies were necessary.

CONCLUSIONS

CD133 and SOX2 might be associated with worse prognosis in advanced cancer. More prospective studies are strongly needed.

IMPACT

CD133 and SOX2 may be promising targeted molecular therapy for advanced cancer patients.

CD164 promotes tumor progression and predicts the poor prognosis of bladder cancer

CD164 was found to play a role in many malignant diseases. But the roles of CD164 in human bladder cancer have not yet been studied. The object of our study was to investigate the functions of CD164 in urothelial bladder carcinoma. The immunohistochemistry (IHC) was performed to evaluate the associations between the expression level of CD164 and clinical‐pathological features of patients, and IHC was used to analyze the relationship between CD164 and CXCR4 in tumor tissues. Real‐time qPCR and Western blot were used to measure the expression of relevant genes. The roles of CD164 in tumor cells and tissues were investigated by in vitro and in vivo experiments. The results of immunohistochemistry found that CD164 was associated with clinical and pathological features of patients. High level of CD164 was related to the distant metastasis and vascular invasion of bladder cancer patients. In vitro, by silencing of CD164, the proliferation, migration, and invasion of tumor cells were inhibited significantly by regulating related proteins such as Ki67, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, matrix metalloproteinases‐2, and matrix metalloproteinases‐9. In vivo, knocking‐down of CD164 could reduce the growth and metastasis of tumors in mice. In addition, a co‐expression was found between CD164 and CXCR4 in tumor tissues. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that CD164 was associated with the poor clinical outcomes of BC patients. Silencing of CD164 could inhibit the progression of tumors in vivo and in vitro, which may become an effective target in the treatment of bladder cancer.

P300 Acetyltransferase Mediates Stiffness-Induced Activation of Hepatic Stellate Cells Into Tumor-Promoting Myofibroblasts

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) contribute to desmoplasia and stiffness of liver metastases by differentiating into matrix-producing myofibroblasts. We investigated whether stiffness due to the presence of tumors increases activation of HSCs into myofibroblasts and their tumor-promoting effects, as well as the role of E1A binding protein p300, a histone acetyltransferase that regulates transcription, in these processes.

METHODS

HSCs were isolated from liver tissues of patients, mice in which the p300 gene was flanked by 2 loxP sites (p300F/F mice), and p300+/+ mice (controls). The HSCs were placed on polyacrylamide gels with precisely defined stiffness, and their activation (differentiation into myofibroblasts) was assessed by immunofluorescence and immunoblot analyses for alpha-smooth muscle actin. In HSCs from mice, the p300 gene was disrupted by cre recombinase. In human HSCs, levels of p300 were knocked down with small hairpin RNAs or a mutant form of p300 that is not phosphorylated by AKT (p300S1834A) was overexpressed. Human HSCs were also cultured with inhibitors of p300 (C646), PI3K signaling to AKT (LY294002), or RHOA (C3 transferase) and effects on stiffness-induced activation were measured. RNA sequencing and chromatin immunoprecipitation-quantitative polymerase chain reaction were used to identify HSC genes that changed expression levels in response to stiffness. We measured effects of HSC-conditioned media on proliferation of HT29 colon cancer cells and growth of tumors following subcutaneous injection of these cells into mice. MC38 colon cancer cells were injected into portal veins of p300F/Fcre and control mice, and liver metastases were measured. p300F/Fcre and control mice were given intraperitoneal injections of CCl₄ to induce liver fibrosis. Liver tissues were collected and analyzed by immunofluorescence, immunoblot, and histology.

RESULTS

Substrate stiffness was sufficient to activate HSCs, leading to nuclear accumulation of p300. Disrupting p300 level or activity blocked stiffness-induced activation of HSCs. In HSCs, substrate stiffness activated AKT signaling via RHOA to induce phosphorylation of p300 at serine 1834; this caused p300 to translocate to the nucleus, where it up-regulated transcription of genes that increase activation of HSCs and metastasis, including CXCL12. MC38 cells, injected into portal veins, formed fewer metastases in livers of p300F/Fcre mice than control mice. Expression of p300 was increased in livers of mice following injection of CCl4; HSC activation and collagen deposition were reduced in livers of p300F/Fcre mice compared with control mice.

CONCLUSIONS

In studies of mice, we found liver stiffness to activate HSC differentiation into myofibroblasts, which required nuclear accumulation of p300. p300 increases HSC expression of genes that promote metastasis.

Expression profile of cytokines in gastric cancer patients using proteomic antibody microarray

Gastric cancer (GC) is often a deadly disease due to the late diagnosis and chemoresistance that characterizes many cases of this disease. The aim of this study was to explore a panel of candidate cytokines as diagnostic and predictive biomarkers for GC. Sixteen tissue samples of GC and adjacent noncancerous mucosa were selected from GC patients (n=8) for antibody microarray analysis. Proteomic chip-based analysis was performed to simultaneously identify 507 cytokines using a cytokine antibody array in the gastric tissues to screen for differential proteins related in cases of GC. Fold changes of protein expression >2.0 or <0.5 were considered significant. The proteins that showed significant differences in levels between the cancerous and non-cancerous samples were analyzed using bioinformatics analysis. One hundred and five cytokines that were significantly different (p<0.05) between GC tissues and normal gastric mucosa were identified. Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis showed that these differentially expressed proteins are involved in many biological and immunological processes, mainly in response to stress, chloroplast thylakoid membrane, vacuole, photosynthesis, aspartic-type endopeptidase activity and flavin adenine dinucleotide binding. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis indicated that these proteins mainly were involved in the process of cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) signaling pathway, pathways in cancer, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) signaling pathway, and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway. These findings suggest that the differentially expressed proteins could be associated with GC in patients. Further study of these cytokines may provide a promising approach for diagnosis, classification and prognosis of GC.

Ginkgolic acid inhibits the invasiveness of colon cancer cells through AMPK activation

Tumor cell invasion and metastasis are important processes in colorectal cancer that exert negative effects on patient outcomes; consequently, a prominent topic in the field of colorectal cancer study is the identification of safe and affordable anticancer drugs against cell invasion and metastasis, with limited side effects. Ginkgolic acid is a phenolic acid extracted from ginkgo fruit, ginkgo exotesta and ginkgo leaves. Previous studies have indicated that ginkgolic acid inhibits tumor growth and invasion in a number of types of cancer; however, limited studies have considered the effects of ginkgolic acid on colon cancer. In the present study, SW480 colon cancer cells were treated with a range of concentrations of ginkgolic acid; tetrazolium dye-based MTT, wound-scratch and transwell migration assays were performed to investigate the effects on the proliferation, migration and invasion of colon cancer cells, and potential mechanisms for the effects were explored. The results indicated that ginkgolic acid reduced the proliferation and significantly inhibited the migration and invasion of SW480 cells in a concentration-dependent manner. Additional experiments indicated that ginkgolic acid significantly decreased the expression of invasion-associated proteins, including matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-9, urinary-type plasminogen activator and C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4, and activated adenosine monophosphate activated protein kinase (AMPK) in SW480 cells. Small interfering RNA silencing of AMPK expression reversed the effect of ginkgolic acid on the expression of invasion-associated proteins. This result suggested that ginkgolic acid inhibited the proliferation, migration and invasion of SW480 colon cancer cells by inducing AMPK activation and inhibiting the expression of invasion-associated proteins.

A meta-analysis of CXCL12 expression for cancer prognosis

Background:

CXCL12 (SDF1) is reported to promote cancer progression in several preclinical models and this is corroborated by the analysis of human tissue specimens. However, the relationship between CXCL12 expression and cancer survival has not been systematically assessed.

Methods:

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies that evaluated the association between CXCL12 expression and cancer survival.

Results:

Thirty-eight studies inclusive of 5807 patients were included in the analysis of overall, recurrence-free or cancer-specific survival, the majority of which were retrospective. The pooled hazard ratios (HRs) for overall and recurrence-free survival in patients with high CXCL12 expression were 1.39 (95% CI: 1.17–1.65, P=0.0002) and 1.12 (95% CI: 0.82–1.53, P=0.48) respectively, but with significant heterogeneity between studies. On subgroup analysis by cancer type, high CXCL12 expression was associated with reduced overall survival in patients with oesophagogastric (HR 2.08; 95% CI: 1.31–3.33, P=0.002), pancreatic (HR 1.54; 95% CI: 1.21–1.97, P=0.0005) and lung cancer (HR 1.37; 95% CI: 1.08–1.75, P=0.01), whereas in breast cancer patients high CXCL12 expression conferred an overall survival advantage (HR 0.5; 95% CI: 0.38–0.66, P<0.00001).

Conclusions:

Determination of CXCL12 expression has the potential to be of use as a cancer biomarker and adds prognostic information in various cancer types. Prospective or prospective–retrospective analyses of CXCL12 expression in clearly defined cancer cohorts are now required to advance our understanding of the relationship between CXCL12 expression and cancer outcome.

Expression of CXCR-4 and IDO in human colorectal cancer: An immunohistochemical approach

C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4), the receptor for the chemokine stromal cell-derived factor (SDF)-1 [also known as C-X-C motif chemokine 12 (CXCL12)], is involved in lymphocyte trafficking. Recent studies have demonstrated that, during pregnancy, a placental enzyme called indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase (IDO) exerts a key role in suppressing the maternal T-cell response against the fetus. In the present study, the significance of CXCR4 and IDO expression in human colorectal cancer (CRC) has been investigated by immunohistochemical assay, and their association with survival was analyzed. Tumor specimens (n=60) from patients with different American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) stages of CRC (I or IV) were assessed. In the stage IV group, 23 of 30 cases (77%) stained positive for CXCR4, and 9 of 30 (30%) were positive for IDO. By contrast, in the stage I group, 7 of 30 cases (23%) stained positive for CXCR4, and 15 of 30 cases (50%) were positive for IDO. The 5-year survival rate of those with high CXCR4 expression in tumor specimens (n=30) was significantly worse compared with those with negative CXCR4 expression (16.3 vs. 60.7%, P=0.02). By contrast, the 5-year survival rate of those with high IDO expression in tumor specimens (n=24) was not significantly different compared with those with negative IDO expression (36.4 vs. 56.8%). In the stage I group, 4 patients in the high IDO expression group (n=15) had distant metastases (2 in the liver 1 in the brain, and 1 in the lung). Taken together, CXCR4 appears to be a novel predictive indicator of survival, and IDO expression in the early stage may be a predictor of distant metastasis.

CXCR4, CXCL12 and the relative CXCL12-CXCR4 expression as prognostic factors in colon cancer

The CXCL12-CXCR4 axis is proposed to mediate metastasis formation. In this study, we examined CXCL12, CXCR4 and the relative CXCL12-CXCR4 expression as prognostic factors in two cohorts of colon cancer patients. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and in situ hybridization (ISH) were used to study CXCR4, CXCL12 and relative CXCL12-CXCR4 expression in tissue microarrays. Our study included totally 596 patients, 290 in cohort 1 and 306 in cohort 2. For tumour, node, metastasis (TNM) stage III, low nuclear expression of CXCR4 was a positive prognostic factor for 5-year disease-free survival (DFS) in cohort 1 (P = 0.007) and cohort 2 (P = 0.023). In multivariate analysis for stage III, nuclear expression of CXCR4 in cohort 1 was confirmed as a prognostic factor for DFS (hazard ratio (HR), 0.27; 95 % CI, 0.09 to 0.77). For TNM stage III, high cytoplasmic expression of CXCL12 was associated with better 5-year DFS in both cohorts (P = 0.006 and P = 0.006, respectively). We further validated the positive prognostic value of CXCL12 expression for 5-year DFS in stage III with ISH (P = 0.022). For TNM stage III, the relative CXCL12-CXCR4 expression (CXCL12 > CXCR4 vs CXCL12 = CXCR4 vs CXCL12 < CXCR4) was a prognostic factor for 5-year DFS in cohort 1 (92 % vs 46 % vs 31 %, respectively; P < 0.001) and cohort 2 (92 % vs 66 % vs 30 %, respectively; P = 0.006). In conclusion, CXCL12 and relative CXCL12-CXCR4 expression are independent prognostic factors for 5-year DFS in TNM stage III colon cancer.

Relationship between SDF-1G801A polymorphism and its expression in Tunisian patients with colorectal cancer

The aim was to evaluate the relationship between SDF-1G801A polymorphism and its immunohistochemical expression in colorectal cancer tissues in the Tunisian cohort. The molecular and immunohistochemical analysis showed that SDF-1G801A polymorphic variant was higher in CRC patients with TNM stage II and III, the SDF-1 expression was significantly increased from normal mucosa to primary tumor (p < 0.05). CRC patients have higher frequency of A allele (52.01%) than controls (26.8%) (P = 0.0001). Thus, SDF-1 polymorphism is a risk factor of colorectal cancer susceptibility in our population, the polymorph genotype of SDF-1 maybe associated with clinical manifestations in CRC patients in Tunisia.

A meta-analysis for C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 as a prognostic marker and potential drug target in hepatocellular carcinoma

Chemokines (CKs), small proinflammatory chemoattractant cytokines that bind to specific G-protein coupled seven-span transmembrane receptors, are major regulators of cell trafficking and adhesion. C-X-C chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) has gained tremendous attention over the last decade, since it was found to be upregulated in a wide variety of cancer types, including hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The clinical relevance of expression of CXCR4 in HCC remains controversial; our aim was to identify the precise relationship of CXCR4 to prognosis and clinicopathological features. We searched the database from MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and Embase and then conducted a meta-analysis from publications met the inclusion criteria for the qualitative study. Our data showed that 1) CXCR4 is overexpressed in HCC tissues but not in normal hepatic tissue, OR =84.26, 95% confidence interval (CI) =11.86–598.98, P<0.0001. CXCR4 expression is higher in HCC than those in cirrhosis as well, OR =20.71, 95% CI =7.61–56.34, P<0.00001. 2) The expression levels of CXCR4 does not increase during local progression, however, CXCR4 expression increases the risk of distant metastases in HCC, OR =5.84, 95% CI =2.84–12.00, P<0.00001. 3) High levels of CXCR4 gene expression are associated with worse survival in HCC, HR =0.18, 95% CI =0.10–0.32, Z=5.77, P<0.00001. These data indicate that CXCR4 expression correlates with an increased risk and worse survival in HCC patients. The aberrant CXCR4 expression plays an important role in the carcinogenesis and metastasis of HCC. Our conclusion also supports that the promise of CXCR4 signaling pathway blockade as a potential strategy for HCC patients.

Tumor type-specific and skin region-selective metastasis of human cancers: another example of the "seed and soil" hypothesis

Metastasis of human cancer is an organ-selective process that is determined by anatomical and biological factors as well as by specific microenvironmental properties. Dissemination of visceral malignancies to the skin is rather rare and usually occurs in a later stage of the disease. Using statistical approaches, both positive (renal and lung cancers) and negative (pancreatic and liver cancers) organ preferences can be identified in a variety of cancers. While certain cancer types are characterized by random distribution for skin metastasis (liver cancer), a number of cancers demonstrate a colonization preference to the region of origin: lung cancer to the supradiaphragmatic (mostly chest) and colorectal cancers to the infradiaphragmatic (abdominal) skin regions. In certain cases, however, skin metastasis develops more frequently at specific distant locations, as evidenced by the dissemination of renal cancer at the head and neck region. These findings are clinically relevant and useful especially in patients where skin metastasis is the first indication of a malignancy. Nevertheless, it is a strong argument for the predominant role of microenvironmental factors in cancer dissemination. On the other hand, skin metastases of visceral cancers provide a unique model to analyze the pathomechanisms determining organ selectivity, including the organ-specific vascularization, the dermatome-specific innervation, or immunological and developmental factors.

Tumour Microenvironment: Overview with an Emphasis on the Colorectal Liver Metastasis Pathway

The tumour microenvironment (TME) represents a dynamic network that plays an important role in tumour initiation, proliferation, growth, and metastasis. Cell behaviour may be regulated by interplay of molecular interactions involving positive and negative reinforcement as well as a high level of cross-talk, which determines this system. Additionally, cancer involves cell proliferation, its malignancy defined by the tumour's ability to break down normal tissue architecture and by a dynamic process of invasion and metastasis. The metastatic cascade is regulated by a chain of molecular steps which triggers the progression of the developing cancer cell in the primary tumour into a number of transformations, leading to invasion and proceeding to metastases. Tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs) play a key-role in the progression from inflammatory conditions to cancer; TAMs are also capable of infiltrating the tumour microenvironment. Furthermore, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), a population of inhibitory immune cells, have been reported to increase in various cancer types, although characterising human MDSCs remains difficult, as their phenotype is quite variable. The future of cancer treatment is likely to involve creating more drugs that target these elements as well as others. An overview of the tumour's microenvironment is, therefore, presented in this paper, focusing on the metastatic pathways of primary colorectal cancer to the liver.

Review article: chemokines as orchestrators of autoimmune hepatitis and potential therapeutic targets

BACKGROUND

Chemokines contribute to the pathogenesis of autoimmune hepatitis by directing the migration and positioning of inflammatory and immune cells within the liver.

AIM

Describe the liver-infiltrating effector cell populations in autoimmune hepatitis, indicate the chemokines that influence their migration, describe the role of chemokines in hepatic fibrosis and identify chemokine-directed treatment opportunities.

METHODS

Studies cited in Pub Med from 1972 to 2014 for autoimmune hepatitis, chemokines in liver disease, pathogenesis of autoimmune hepatitis and chemokine therapy were selected.

RESULTS

T helper type 17 lymphocytes expressing CXCR3 and CCR6 are attracted to the liver by the secretion of CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11. These cells recruit pro-inflammatory T helper type 1 lymphocytes expressing CXCR3 and CCR5 by secreting CXCL10. Resident natural killer T cells expressing CXCR6 migrate in response to the local secretion of CXCL16, and they modulate the inflammatory response. T helper type 2 lymphocytes expressing CCR4 are attracted by CCL17 and CCL22, and they dampen the expansion of pro-inflammatory cells. Regulatory T cells expressing CXCR3 are attracted by the secretion of CXCL9, and they help dampen the pro-inflammatory responses. CCL2, CCL3, CCL5, CXCL4, CXCL10 and CXCL16 promote fibrosis by activating or attracting hepatic stellate cells, and CX3CL1 may prevent fibrosis by affecting the apoptosis of monocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

Chemokines are requisites for mobilising, directing and positioning the effector cells in immune-mediated liver disease. They are feasible therapeutic targets in autoimmune hepatitis, and the evaluation of monoclonal antibodies that neutralise the pro-inflammatory ligands or designer peptides that block receptor activity are investigational opportunities.

The association of CXCR4 expression with prognosis and clinicopathological indicators in colorectal carcinoma patients: a meta-analysis

AIMS

The clinical relevance of expression of chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4) in colorectal carcinoma (CRC) remains controversial; our aim was to identify the precise relationship of CXCR4 to prognosis and clinicopathological features.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A meta-analysis was performed. Original data included the hazard ratios (HRs) of recurrence-free survival (RFS), overall survival (OS) and odds ratio (OR) in CRC patients. We pooled HR/OR with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) to estimate the hazard. A total of 20 published studies (including 2253 patients) were eligible. RFS and OS were related significantly to CXCR4 expression, with HRs 1.62 (95% CI 1.24-2.11; P < 0.0001) and 1.68 (95% CI 1.31-2.14; P < 0.0001), respectively. In addition, a significant association was revealed between positive CXCR4 expression and age (less than median age: OR 0.78, 95% CI 0.62-0.98; P = 0.03), stage (I and II: OR 0.46, 95% CI 0.32-0.66; P < 0.0001), grade (well/moderately differentiated: OR 0.74, 95% CI 0.56-0.98; P = 0.04), location (colon: OR: 0.73, 95% CI 0.57-0.95; P = 0.02), lymph node invasion (present: OR2.14, 95% CI 1.36-3.37; P = 0.001),and distant metastasis (present: OR 2.40; 95% CI 1.36-4.23; P = 0.003). Heterogeneity was observed among the included studies with regard to stage (I(2) = 58 %), lymph node invasiveness (I(2) = 74%) and distant metastasis (I(2) = 56%). No publication bias was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

Chemokine receptor 4 expression indicates poorer prognosis in older patients and advanced stage or poor differentiation in CRC, and also serves as an indicator of lymph node and distal organ metastasis. Surprisingly, high CXCR4 expression may indicate that the location of the tumour is the rectum. Thus, CXCR4 could help to predict outcome and guide clinical therapy.

The expression of chemokine receptors CXCR3 and CXCR4 in predicting postoperative tumour progression in stages I-II colon cancer: a retrospective study

OBJECTIVES

The prognostic significance of chemokine receptors in stage I/II colon cancer is unclear. We assessed the prognostic value of chemokine receptor CXCR3 and CXCR4 in stage I/II colon cancer.

METHODS

145 patients with stage I/II colon cancer who underwent curative surgery alone from 2000 to 2007 were investigated. Chemokine receptor expression was assessed by immunohistochemistry. The associations between CXCR3, CXCR4 and clinicopathological variables were analysed using the χ2 test, and the relationships between chemokine receptors and a 5-year disease-free survival were analysed by univariate and multivariate analyses.

RESULTS

The high-expression rates of CXCR3 and CXCR4 were 17.9% (26/145) and 38.6% (56/145), respectively. There were no significant associations between the expressions of CXCR3, CXCR4 and clinicopathological factors including gender, age, tumour location, histological differentiation, pathological stage, lymphovascular invasion and pretreatment serum carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA). The 5-year disease-free survival was not significantly different between low-expression groups and high-expression groups of CXCR3 and CXCR4. Multivariate analysis revealed that serum CEA and a number of retrieved lymph nodes, rather than chemokine receptors, were independent prognosticators.

CONCLUSIONS

CXCR3 and CXCR4 are not independent prognosticators for stage I/II colon cancer after curative surgery.

Differential expression of SDF-1 isoforms in bladder cancer

PURPOSE

SDF-1 is a ligand of the chemokine receptors CXCR4 and 7. The 6 known SDF-1 isoforms are generated by alternative mRNA splicing. While SDF-1 expression has been detected in various malignancies, only few groups have reported differential expression of SDF-1 isoforms and its clinical significance. We evaluated the expression of 3 SDF-1 isoforms (α, β and γ) in bladder cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Using quantitative polymerase chain reaction we measured SDF-1α, β and γ mRNA levels in 25 normal and 44 bladder cancer tissues, and in 210 urine specimens (28 normal, 74 benign, 57 bladder cancer, 35 bladder cancer history, 8 other cancer history and 8 other cancer) from consecutive patients. Levels were correlated with clinical outcome.

RESULTS

Of the SDF-1 isoforms only SDF-1β mRNA was significantly over expressed 2.5-fold to sixfold in bladder cancer compared to normal bladder tissues. SDF-1α was expressed in bladder tissues but SDF-1γ was undetectable. On multivariate analysis SDF-1β was an independent predictor of metastasis and disease specific mortality (p=0.017 and 0.043, respectively). In exfoliated urothelial cells only SDF-1β mRNA levels were differentially expressed with 91.2% sensitivity and 73.8% specificity for detecting bladder cancer. In patients with a bladder cancer history increased SDF-1β levels indicated a 4.3-fold increased risk of recurrence within 6 months (p=0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

SDF-1 isoforms are differentially expressed in bladder tissues and exfoliated urothelial cells. SDF-1β mRNA levels in bladder cancer tissues predict a poor prognosis. Furthermore, SDF-1β mRNA levels in exfoliated cells detect bladder cancer with high sensitivity and they are a potential predictor of future recurrence.

CD164 regulates the tumorigenesis of ovarian surface epithelial cells through the SDF-1α/CXCR4 axis

Background

CD164 (endolyn), a sialomucin, has been reported to play a role in the proliferation, adhesion, and differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells. The potential association of CD164 with tumorigenicity remains unclear.

Methods

The clinicopathological correlation of ovarian cancer with CD164 was assessed in a 97-patient tumor tissue microarray. Overexpression or silence CD164 was to analyze the effect of CD164 on the proliferation, colony formation and apoptosis via a mouse xenograft and western blotting analysis. The subcellular localization of CD164 was collected in the immunohistochemical and confocal analysis.

Results

Our data demonstrated that higher expression levels of CD164 were identified in malignant ovarian cancer cell lines, such as SKOV3 and HeyA8. The clinicopathological correlation analysis showed that the upregulation of CD164 protein was significantly associated with tumor grade and metastasis. The overexpression of CD164 in human ovarian epithelial surface cells promoted cellular proliferation and colony formation and suppressed apoptosis. These tumorigenicity effects of CD164 were reconfirmed in a mouse xenograft model. We also found that the overexpression of CD164 proteins increased the amounts of CXCR4 and SDF-1α and activated the SDF-1α/CXCR4 axis, inducing colony and sphere formation. Finally, we identified the subcellular localization of CD164 in the nucleus and cytosol and found that nuclear CD164 might be involved in the regulation of the activity of the CXCR4 promoter.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that the increased expression of CD164 is involved in ovarian cancer progression via the SDF-1α/CXCR4 axis, which promotes tumorigenicity. Thus, targeting CD164 may serve as a potential ovarian cancer biomarker, and targeting CD164 may serve as a therapeutic modality in the management of high-grade ovarian tumors.

Joint network and node selection for pathway-based genomic data analysis

Motivation: By capturing various biochemical interactions, biological pathways provide insight into underlying biological processes. Given high-dimensional microarray or RNA-sequencing data, a critical challenge is how to integrate them with rich information from pathway databases to jointly select relevant pathways and genes for phenotype prediction or disease prognosis. Addressing this challenge can help us deepen biological understanding of phenotypes and diseases from a systems perspective.

Results: In this article, we propose a novel sparse Bayesian model for joint network and node selection. This model integrates information from networks (e.g. pathways) and nodes (e.g. genes) by a hybrid of conditional and generative components. For the conditional component, we propose a sparse prior based on graph Laplacian matrices, each of which encodes detailed correlation structures between network nodes. For the generative component, we use a spike and slab prior over network nodes. The integration of these two components, coupled with efficient variational inference, enables the selection of networks as well as correlated network nodes in the selected networks.

Simulation results demonstrate improved predictive performance and selection accuracy of our method over alternative methods. Based on three expression datasets for cancer study and the KEGG pathway database, we selected relevant genes and pathways, many of which are supported by biological literature. In addition to pathway analysis, our method is expected to have a wide range of applications in selecting relevant groups of correlated high-dimensional biomarkers.

Availability: The code can be downloaded at www.cs.purdue.edu/homes/szhe/software.html.

Contact:alanqi@purdue.edu

MSC and Tumors: Homing, Differentiation, and Secretion Influence Therapeutic Potential

: Mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSC) are adult multipotent progenitors with fibroblast-like morphology able to differentiate into adipocytic, osteogenic, chondrogenic, and myogenic lineages. Due to these properties, MSC have been studied and introduced as therapeutics in regenerative medicine. Preliminary studies have also shown a possible involvement of MSC as precursors of cellular elements within tumor microenvironments, in particular tumor-associated fibroblasts (TAF). Among a number of different possible origins, TAF may originate from a pool of circulating progenitors from bone marrow or adipose tissue-derived MSC. There is growing evidence to corroborate that cells immunophenotypically defined as MSC are able to reside as TAF influencing the tumor microenvironment in a potentially bi-phasic and obscure manner: either promoting or inhibiting growth depending on tumor context and MSC sources. Here we focus on relationships between the tumor microenvironment, cancer cells, and MSC, analyzing their diverse ability to influence neoplastic development. Associated activities include MSC homing driven by the secretion of various mediators, differentiation towards TAF phenotypes, and reciprocal interactions with the tumor cells. These are reviewed here with the aim of understanding the biological functions of MSC that can be exploited for innovative cancer therapy.

Effect of short hairpin RNA-induced CXCR4 silence on ovarian cancer cell

This study was aimed to investigate the effect of down-regulating the CXC chemokine receptor-4 (CXCR4) expression on cell proliferation, invasion and migration of human ovarian cancer cell line SW626. The CXCR4 specific short hairpin RNA (shRNA) plasmid vector was constructed and then transfected into the SW626 cells. The expression of CXCR4 mRNA and protein was detected by real-time RT-PCR and western blot respectively. Cell proliferation was detected by 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT). Cell invasion and migration was assayed in Biocoat Matrigel invasion chambers. The expression level of CXCR4 in SW626 cell transfected with CXCR4-siRNA was inhibited, leading to significant decrease in SW626 cell proliferation, invasion and migration. We conclude that CXCR4 is essential for tumor cell proliferation and invasion. The CXCR4 molecule is a potential therapeutic target to control ovarian cancer cell growth or metastasis.