CITES and the Zoonotic Disease Content in International Wildlife Trade

Assessing the global prevalence of wild birds in trade

Trade represents a significant threat to many wild species and is often clandestine and poorly monitored. Information on which species are most prevalent in trade and potentially threatened by it therefore remains fragmentary. We used 7 global data sets on birds in trade to identify species or groups of species at particular risk and assessed the extent to which they were congruent in terms of the species recorded in trade. We used the frequency with which species were recorded in the data sets as the basis for a trade prevalence score that was applied to all bird species globally. Literature searches and questionnaire surveys were used to develop a list of species known to be heavily traded to validate the trade prevalence score. The score was modeled to identify significant predictors of trade. Although the data sets sampled different parts of the broad trade spectrum, congruence among them was statistically strong in all comparisons. Furthermore, the frequency with which species were recorded within data sets was positively correlated with their occurrence across data sets, indicating that the trade prevalence score captured information on trade volume. The trade prevalence score discriminated well between species identified from semi-independent assessments as heavily or unsustainably traded and all other species. Globally, 45.1% of all bird species and 36.7% of globally threatened bird species had trade prevalence scores ≥1. Species listed in Appendices I or II of CITES, species with large geographical distributions, and nonpasserines tended to have high trade prevalence scores. Speciose orders with high mean trade prevalence scores included Falconiformes, Psittaciformes, Accipitriformes, Anseriformes, Bucerotiformes, and Strigiformes. Despite their low mean prevalence score, Passeriformes accounted for the highest overall number of traded species of any order but had low representation in CITES appendices. Geographical hotspots where large numbers of traded species co-occur differed among passerines (Southeast Asia and Eurasia) and nonpasserines (central South America, sub-Saharan Africa, and India). This first attempt to quantify and map the relative prevalence in trade of all bird species globally can be used to identify species and groups of species that may be at particular risk of harm from trade and can inform conservation and policy interventions to reduce its adverse impacts.

Global challenges in aging: insights from comparative biology and one health

The well-being of wildlife populations, ecosystem health, and human health are interlinked, and preserving wildlife is crucial for sustaining healthy ecosystems. Wildlife numbers, and in particular avian populations, have steeply declined over the past century, associated with anthropogenic factors originating from industry, urbanization, changing land use, habitat loss, pollution, emerging diseases, and climate change. All these factors combine to exert increasing stress and impair health for both humans and wildlife, with diminished metabolic, immune, and reproductive function, deteriorating overall health, and reduced longevity. The "toxic aging coin" suggests that these stressors may have dual impacts on aging-they can accelerate the aging process, and older individuals may struggle to cope with pollutants compared to younger ones. These responses are reflected in the health and productivity of individuals, and at a larger scale, the health and ability of populations to withstand disturbances. To understand the potential risk to health over the lifespan, it is important to articulate some of these global challenges and consider both their impacts on aging populations and on the aging process. In this review, we use the toxic aging coin and One Health conceptual frameworks to examine the interconnected health of humans, wildlife, and ecosystems. This exploration aims to develop proactive approaches for optimizing wildlife and human health.

Determining the sustainability of legal wildlife trade

Exploitation of wildlife represents one of the greatest threats to species survival according to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Whilst detrimental impacts of illegal trade are well recognised, legal trade is often equated to being sustainable despite the lack of evidence or data in the majority of cases. We review the sustainability of wildlife trade, the adequacy of tools, safeguards, and frameworks to understand and regulate trade, and identify gaps in data that undermine our ability to truly understand the sustainability of trade. We provide 183 examples showing unsustainable trade in a broad range of taxonomic groups. In most cases, neither illegal nor legal trade are supported by rigorous evidence of sustainability, with the lack of data on export levels and population monitoring data precluding true assessments of species or population-level impacts. We propose a more precautionary approach to wildlife trade and monitoring that requires those who profit from trade to provide proof of sustainability. We then identify four core areas that must be strengthened to achieve this goal: (1) rigorous data collection and analyses of populations; (2) linking trade quotas to IUCN and international accords; (3) improved databases and compliance of trade; and (4) enhanced understanding of trade bans, market forces, and species substitutions. Enacting these core areas in regulatory frameworks, including CITES, is essential to the continued survival of many threatened species. There are no winners from unsustainable collection and trade: without sustainable management not only will species or populations become extinct, but communities dependent upon these species will lose livelihoods.

Thailand's online reptile market decreases, but shifts toward native species during COVID-19

The recent COVID-19 pandemic presented the world with a crisis of incredible scale and made wildlife markets the focal point of authorities. Scientific literature on COVID-19 and wildlife trade overwhelmingly focused on the zoonotic risks of wildlife markets. As many physical marketplaces for wildlife were faced with closure or restrictions to curb the spread of COVID-19, alternative sale platforms were sought. I monitored social media platforms in Thailand during the pandemic and compared this with data obtained in 2016. I found a significant reduction of lizards and snakes offered for sale on social media, compared with before the pandemic. Although the quantity decreased, I found that the number of species almost doubled in snakes, of which unprotected native species increased by 245%. Transport restrictions would limit the mobility of harvesters and interrupts trade chains, and thus could explain the reduced number of snakes and lizards for sale. However, the increase in native species for sale shows that the impact of this international trade disruption could shift focus from international trade to what is locally available. Potentially having serious consequences for the conservation of local species and in line with previous studies documenting increased poaching rates and wildlife crime incidents.

Phylogenomic analysis of the monkeypox virus (MPXV) 2022 outbreak: Emergence of a novel viral lineage?

Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease with clinical manifestations similar to smallpox in humans. Since May 13, 2022, an increasing number of suspected and confirmed cases have been reported, affecting non-endemic regions across the globe. More strikingly, reports from the current outbreak reveal unique aspects regarding transmission dynamics and an unprecedented, rapidly expanding and sustained community transmission. As demonstrated through the still-ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, genomic surveillance has been an essential resource for monitoring and tracking the evolution of pathogens of public health relevance. Herein, we performed a phylogenomic analysis of available Monkeypox virus (MPXV) genomes to determine their evolution and diversity. Our analysis revealed that all MPXV genomes grouped into three monophyletic clades: two previously characterized clades and a newly emerging clade harboring genomes from the ongoing 2022 multi-country outbreak with 286 genomes comprising the hMPXV-1A clade and the newly classified lineages: A.1 (n = 6), A.1.1 (n = 1), A.2 (n = 3) and B.1 (n = 262), where lineage B.1 includes all MPXV genomes from the 2022 outbreak. Finally, it was estimated that B.1 lineage of this clade emerged in Europe on 03/02/2022 [95%CI = 11/13/2021 to 05/10/2022]. The exceptional surge of cases and the broader geographical expansion suggest multifactorial factors as drivers of the current outbreak dynamics. Such factors may include the cessation of smallpox vaccination and its potential spread across particular networks. Integrating pertinent epidemiological information with genomic surveillance information will help generate real-time data to help implement adequate preventive and control measures by optimizing public health decisions to mitigate this outbreak.

CHANS-Law: preventing the next pandemic through the integration of social and environmental law

Zoonotic viruses have sacrificed hundreds of millions of people throughout human history. There are currently 1.7 million unidentified viruses estimated to be circulating in mammal and bird populations. It is foreseeable that in the near future, another of these will transmit to people, heralding the start of the next pandemic-one potentially more deadly than COVID-19. At the core of this article is a call for pre-emptive protection of the natural environment and its regenerative systems as the first fundamental step in the prevention of future epidemics and pandemics. While zoonoses originate in nature, the predominant legal discipline, managing these crises, is international health law which is invoked reactively once an outbreak has been reported. In this paper, we identify the need for a legal shift in epidemic and pandemic responses. In particular, we call for the incorporation of international environmental agreements to prevent the initial viral spillover from animal to human populations. We propose a strategy of strengthening existing agreements and a coupling of legal disciplines, such as health and environmental law, emphasizing the need for synergies across legal disciplines to enhance the emergence and management of future pandemics and epidemics. We introduce Coupled Human and Natural Systems (CHANS) Law to frame the required integration across legal instruments to regulate inextricably human-nature connections and advocate for the development of a Convention on Epidemics and Pandemics.

Molecular detection of zoonotic blood pathogens in ticks from illegally imported turtles in Italy

International trade of animals may represent a gateway for the spreading of zoonotic pathogens and their vectors. Amongst animals, reptiles are commonly illegally imported worldwide, being Italy in the fifth position of importation of these animals. Thus, the current study analysed the pathogens associated with Hyalomma aegyptium ticks, which were collected from illegally imported tortoises from North Africa to Italy. All tick DNA samples were tested by conventional PCR for the presence of Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp., Borrelia spp., Coxiella burnetti, Ehrlichia spp., Hepatozoon spp., Rickettsia spp. and microfilariae of filarioids. Out of 22% (n=161) of ticks screened, 78.9% (n=127) were males and 21.1% (n=34) females. Among them, three male specimens collected from two different turtles (1.9%; 95% CI; 0.5-5.5) scored positive for Anaplasma spp./Ehrlichia spp., whereas all females were negative. BLAST analysis of the sequences obtained from positive samples revealed 99-99.3% nucleotide identity with the sequence of Ehrlichia ewingii available in GenBank. The finding of E. ewingii in ticks from imported reptiles warrants the need for imposing strict rules in the international trade of reptiles to effectively reduce the introduction of exotic pathogens and their vectors in new geographic areas.

Salmonella Newport outbreak in Brazilian parrots: confiscated birds from the illegal pet trade as possible zoonotic sources

Salmonella has long been linked to zoonotic risks, including exotic pets. Parrots are popular pets, and we here describe a salmonellosis outbreak involving Blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva) confiscated from the illegal pet trade in Brazil. High mortality was observed during the rehabilitation for which the causative agent was identified by cultures, and VITEK®2 GN identification card as Salmonella enterica. Genome sequencing of two isolates revealed serovar Newport ST45. The isolates were resistant to aminoglycosides and fluoroquinolones, and genomic analyses detected characteristic Salmonella Pathogenicity Islands (SPIs) and virulence factors. A phylogenetic analysis with other 275 S. Newport ST45 from different international sources showed clustering with poultry and vegetables isolates and closely related clades of intermingled animal, human, food/environmental isolates from different countries (Tables S1 and S2). The virulent profiles and phylogenetic connection to multiple sources bring the attention to the non-host specificity of these strains highlighting the zoonotic potential in the illegal wildlife trade for companion animals.

The perils of flawed science in wildlife trade literature

Despite broad scientific consensus that sustainable use of wildlife can enhance conservation efforts, ethical concerns have led some community groups to oppose use of wild animals. Voicing those concerns is legitimate, but underlying philosophical bias should not influence science-based analysis and interpretation. We argue that philosophical biases are common in the scientific literature on trade in wildlife. The critically important case of bias surrounding the use of reptile leathers for luxury fashion illustrates the problem. Based on analysis of official seizures of fashion products made from wildlife, a recent study inferred that criminal activity (as inferred by noncompliance with regulations) was common and increasing and, hence, that authorities needed to adopt more stringent restrictions on the trade. In fact, the conclusions of that study are artifacts of pseudoreplication (e.g., multiple counts of single violations) and biased sampling (e.g., focus on companies with high rates of error) and run directly opposite to actual patterns in the data. As a proportion of overall trade, rates of noncompliance are exceptionally low (<0.4%), are declining, and result primarily from paper-work errors rather than criminal intent (e.g., such errors are more frequent for goods shipped by government authorities than by the commercial fashion industry). The recommendation by the study authors to prohibit the international trade in wildlife-based fashion products is imperiling a sustainable trade that can benefit biodiversity and people's livelihoods by providing financial incentives for conservation of species and habitats. This example offers a warning of the dangers of basing research on the wildlife trade on ethical or philosophical positions rather than objective evaluations of evidence.

No need to beat around the bushmeat-The role of wildlife trade and conservation initiatives in the emergence of zoonotic diseases

Wildlife species constitute a vast and uncharted reservoir of zoonotic pathogens that can pose a severe threat to global human health. Zoonoses have become increasingly impactful over the past decades, and the expanding trade in wildlife is unarguably among the most significant risk factors for their emergence. Despite several warnings from the academic community about the spillover risks associated with wildlife trade, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic underlines that current policies on the wildlife industry are deficient. Conservation initiatives, rather than practices that attempt to eradicate zoonotic pathogens or the wild species that harbour them, could play a vital role in preventing the emergence of life-threatening zoonoses. This review explores how wildlife conservation initiatives could effectively reduce the risk of new zoonotic diseases emerging from the wildlife trade by integrating existing literature on zoonotic diseases and risk factors associated with wildlife trade. Conservation should mainly aim at reducing human-wildlife interactions in the wildlife trade by protecting wildlife habitats and providing local communities with alternative protein sources. In addition, conservation should focus on regulating the legal wildlife trade and education about disease transfer and safer hunting and butchering methods. By uniting efforts for wildlife protection and universal concern for preventing zoonotic epidemics, conservation initiatives have the potential to safeguard both biodiversity, animal welfare, and global human health security.

Habitat loss and the risk of disease outbreak

Evidence suggests that emerging infectious diseases, such as COVID-19, originate from wildlife species, and that land-use change is an important pathway for pathogen transmission to humans. We first focus on zoonotic disease spillover and the rate at which primary human cases appear, demonstrating that a potential outbreak is directly related to the area of wildlife habitat. We then develop a model of the costs and benefits of land conversion that includes the effect of habitat size on the risk of disease outbreak. Our model and numerical simulations show that incorporating this risk requires more wildlife habitat conservation in the long run, and how much more should be conserved will depend on the initial habitat size. If the area is too small, then no conversion should take place. Any policy to control habitat loss, such as a tax imposed on the rents from converted land, should also vary with habitat area.

Trading Tactics: Time to Rethink the Global Trade in Wildlife

The Covid-19 outbreak has brought about fresh and intensified scrutiny of the wildlife trade, which substantively involves commerce in exotic pets. In response, major policy decisions involving trade bans have ensued, with calls for similar such action to be applied across the trade chain. Yet, these measures have been criticised, largely based on concerns that they risk exacerbating poverty, undermining human rights, damaging conservation incentives, and otherwise harming sustainable development and conservation efforts. Instead, many critics propose improved regulation of the status quo, with the intention of nurturing a legal, sustainable, safe, humane, and equitable wildlife trade. Herein, we provide a countering view that outlines how the risks presented by the wildlife trade are becoming increasingly recognised as being both manifold and severe; and raise concerns that the goal of a well-regulated wildlife trade is becoming increasingly exposed as a mirage. We conclude that while pursuing the United Nation's Sustainable Development Goals (with their focus on poverty alleviation, food security, public health, and conservation) is enduringly vital, a flourishing wildlife trade is not. Given that the exploitation of wildlife, including for the pet trade, has been identified as one of the dominant drivers of biodiversity loss, emergence of zoonotic infectious disease, animal suffering, and financial instability, perpetuating the concept of utilising a regulated wildlife trade as the default approach to protect people and planet is in urgent need of re-evaluation.

Metacoupled Tourism and Wildlife Translocations Affect Synergies and Trade-Offs among Sustainable Development Goals across Spillover Systems

Synergies and trade-offs among the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have been hotly debated. Although the world is increasingly metacoupled (socioeconomic-environmental interactions within and across adjacent or distant systems), there is little understanding of the impacts of globally widespread and important flows on enhancing or compromising sustainability in different systems. Here, we used a new integrated framework to guide SDG synergy and trade-off analysis within and across systems, as influenced by cross-boundary tourism and wildlife translocations. The world’s terrestrial protected areas alone receive approximately 8 billion visits per year, generating a direct economic impact of US $600 billion. Globally, more than 5000 animal species and 29,000 plant species are traded across country borders, and the wildlife trade has arguably contributed to zoonotic disease worldwide, such as the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. We synthesized 22 cases of tourism and wildlife translocations across six continents and found 33 synergies and 14 trade-offs among 10 SDGs within focal systems and across spillover systems. Our study provides an empirical demonstration of SDG interactions across spillover systems and insights for holistic sustainability governance, contributing to fostering synergies and reducing trade-offs to achieve global sustainable development in the metacoupled Anthropocene.

Risky Business: Live Non-CITES Wildlife UK Imports and the Potential for Infectious Diseases

International wildlife trade is recognised as a major transmission pathway for the movement of pathogenic organisms around the world. The UK is an active consumer of non-native live wild animals and is therefore subject to the risks posed by pathogen pollution from imported wildlife. Here, we characterise a key yet overlooked portion of the UK wildlife import market. We evaluate the trade in live non-CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) wild terrestrial animals entering the UK over a 5-year period using data reported by the Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA). Between 2014 and 2018, over 48 million individual animals, across five taxonomic classes and 24 taxonomic orders, were imported into the UK from 90 countries across nine global regions. The largest volumes of wild animals were imported from North America and Asia, and most of the import records were from Europe and Africa. Excluding Columbiformes (pigeons) and Galliformes ('game birds'), amphibians were the most imported taxonomic class (73%), followed by reptiles (17%), mammals (4%), birds (3%), and arachnids (<1%). The records described herein provide insight into the scope and scale of non-CITES listed wildlife imported in to the UK. We describe the potential for pathogen pollution from these vast and varied wildlife imports and highlight the potential threats they pose to public health. We also draw attention to the lack of detail in the UK wildlife import records, which limits its ability to help prevent and manage introduced infectious diseases. We recommend that improved record keeping and reporting could prove beneficial in this regard.