Population-level effects of spinosad and Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis in Daphnia pulex and Daphnia magna: comparison of laboratory and field microcosm exposure conditions

Ecotoxicity of bioinsecticide spinosad to soil organisms: Commercial formulation versus active ingredient

Spintor® (SPIT®) is a commercial formulation of a bioinsecticide with the active ingredient Spinosad (SPIN). Despite the efforts of regulatory agencies, there still is a lack of information regarding short- and long-term exposures to soil-dwellers, as well as effects at environmentally relevant concentrations. This work aimed to evaluate the effects of SPIT® and SPIN, on the oligochaete Eisenia fetida, and the arthropod Folsomia candida. For this, natural soil was spiked with environmentally relevant concentrations (0.00-1.49 mg of the active ingredient·kg-1 of dry soil) to assess avoidance behaviour in E. fetida and reproduction effects on both species. Further, in E. fetida adults exposed for 2- and 28-day biomarkers of oxidative stress, energetic reserves, neurotoxicity and genotoxicity were evaluated. A significant reduction in juvenile production for F. candida was observed for SPIT® at ≥0.66 mg kg-1 and SPIN at ≥0.13 mg kg-1, and although no effect was observed on E. fetida reproduction, the oligochaeta revealed a tendency to avoid soil spiked with SPIT® at 0.44, 0.66 and 1.49 mg kg-1. The sub-individual responses of E. fetida demonstrate genotoxicity upon exposure to SPIT® and SPIN for 2 days. The 2-day exposures of SPIT® and SPIN seem to induce defence mechanisms, and in general, SPIN exerted higher effects than SPIT® on the oligochaetes. Overall, the pro-oxidant performance and energy metabolism pathways were disrupted in both exposures to SPIT® and SPIN. The results suggest that spinosyns-based products can have an impact on soil arthropods F. candida and oligochaete's health, possibly affecting their essential functions in terrestrial ecosystems.

Effects of mosquito control using the microbial agent Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis serovar israelensis (Bti) is commercially produced in various formulations for use as a larvicide worldwide, targeting especially the aquatic larval stage of mosquitoes. However, there is a concern that repeated Bti treatments may have both direct and indirect impacts on non-target organisms (NTOs) and the ecosystems they inhabit. This review evaluates the evidence for such impacts.

METHODS

Literature was searched using six bibliographic databases, two search engines, and on specialist web sites. Eligibility screening was performed in two steps on (1) title/abstract, with consistency among reviewers assessed by double-screening 557 articles and (2) full text. Articles included after full text screening were critically appraised independently by two reviewers. Disagreements were reconciled through discussions. Key parameters of included studies are presented in narrative synthesis tables, including risk of bias assessments. Meta-analyses comparing treated with untreated ecosystems and using either the raw mean difference or log response ratio as effect size were performed.

REVIEW FINDINGS

Ninety-five articles covering 282 case studies were included in the review. From these, we identified 119 different response variables, which were divided into nine outcome categories. Most studies investigated NTO abundance or life history (reproduction related outcomes), but diversity and community composition are also well represented as outcome categories. The studies are highly variable in methodology, rigor, and spatio-temporal scale, spanning 1 day to 21 years and from < 1m2 to > 10,000 m2. Our metanalyses revealed a consistent negative effect of Bti treatment on abundances of Chironomidae and Crustacea, and also on chironomid emergence, although from a more restricted set of studies and regions. For most remaining response variables, we judged meta-analysis unfeasible, due to low study numbers or insufficient reporting of methods and results.

CONCLUSIONS

There is now a significant body of studies documenting effects of mosquito control using Bti on NTOs or other ecosystem properties, especially associated with negative effects on Chironomidae, as apparent from our meta-analyses. Accordingly, we suggest the potential for negative NTO or other ecosystem effects of Bti treatment should not be discounted a priori. Once a decision to proceed with Bti treatment has been taken, priority should be given to a well-designed program of ongoing monitoring and assessment. The paucity of rigorous studies conducted with low bias risk for most response variables undermines our capacity for evaluating how common many of the effects documented might be. Future research would benefit from a rigorous and well-replicated approach to studying Bti impacts in semi-field mesocosms or in the field, combined with a greater rigor in reporting key methodological details. A greater focus is needed on understanding the environmental factors which regulate the wider effects of mosquito control using Bti on NTOs and ecosystems, to enhance our capacity for predicting where and when Bti is most likely to have additional, negative and indirect ecological impacts.

Measuring Daphnia life history in the wild: The efficacy of individual field cages

Life-history studies are often conducted in a laboratory environment where it is easy to assay individual animals. However, factors such as temperature, photoperiod, and nutrition vary greatly between laboratory and field environments, making it difficult to compare results. Consequently, there is a need to study individual life histories in the field, but this is currently difficult in systems such as Daphnia where it is not possible to mark and track individual animals. Here, we present a proof of principle study showing that field cages are a reliable method for collecting individual-level life-history data in Daphnia magna. As a first step, we compared the life history of paired animals reared outside and inside cages to test the hypothesis that cages allow free flow of algal food resources. We then used a seminatural mesocosm setting to compare the performance of individual field cages versus glass jars refilled with mesocosm water each day. We found that cages did not inhibit food flow and that differences in life histories between three clones detected in the jar assays were also detectable using the much less labor-intensive field cages. We conclude that field cages are a feasible approach for collecting individual-level life-history data in systems such as Daphnia where individual animals cannot be marked and tracked.

Efficacy and Nontarget Effects of a Spinosad-Based Larvicide in Minnesota Vernal Pools and Cattail Marshes

Larvicides that contain spinosad, a bacterial metabolite, are used to control mosquitoes in diverse aquatic habitats. These same habitats are home to other invertebrates, including Crustacea-fairy shrimp, isopods, and amphipods-and mollusks-fingernail clams and freshwater snails. A double-blind study evaluated the effects of Natular® G, a granular treatment containing spinosad, on spring Aedes spp. and nontarget invertebrates in vernal wetlands. Within 14 days after application, Natular G controlled larvae of spring Aedes by 53-84%, depending on species, but had no significant effects on numbers of fairy shrimp, fingernail clams, or freshwater snails. A second double-blind study evaluated effects on Coquillettidia perturbans and nontarget isopods and amphipods in cattail marshes. Treatment reduced emergence of Cq. perturbans by 25% but did not change numbers of isopods or amphipods. The 2 experiments indicate Natular G could be effective against spring Aedes in vernal wetlands, less so against Cq. perturbans in cattail marshes, and yet pose minimal risk to crustaceans and mollusks in either vernal wetlands or cattail marshes.

Environmental and socioeconomic effects of mosquito control in Europe using the biocide Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti)

Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. israelensis (Bti) has been used in mosquito control programs to reduce nuisance in Europe for decades and is generally considered an environmentally-safe, effective and target-specific biocide. However, the use of Bti is not uncontroversial. Target mosquitoes and affected midges represent an important food source for many aquatic and terrestrial predators and reduction of their populations is likely to result in food-web effects at higher trophic levels. In the context of global biodiversity loss, this appears particularly critical since treated wetlands are often representing conservation areas. In this review, we address the current large-scale use of Bti for mosquito nuisance control in Europe, provide a description of its regulation followed by an overview of the available evidence on the parameters that are essential to evaluate Bti use in mosquito control. Bti accumulation and toxin persistence could result in a chronic expose of mosquito populations ultimately affecting their susceptibility, although observed increase in resistance to Bti in mosquito populations is low due to the four toxins involved. A careful independent monitoring of mosquito susceptibility, using sensitive bioassays, is mandatory to detect resistance development timely. Direct Bti effects were documented for non-target chironomids and other invertebrate groups and are discussed for amphibians. Field studies revealed contrasting results on possible impacts on chironomid abundances. Indirect, food-web effects were rarely studied in the environment. Depending on study design and duration, Bti effects on higher trophic levels were demonstrated or not. Further long-term field studies are needed, especially with observations of bird declines in Bti-treated wetland areas. Socio-economic relevance of mosquito control requires considering nuisance, vector-borne diseases and environmental effects jointly. Existing studies indicate that a majority of the population is concerned regarding potential environmental effects of Bti mosquito control and that they are willing to pay for alternative, more environment-friendly techniques.

Effects of predator cues and pesticide resistance on the toxicity of a (bio)pesticide mixture

BACKGROUND

Populations of target species are typically exposed to pesticide mixtures and natural stressors such as predator cues, and are increasingly developing resistance to single pesticides. Nevertheless, we have poor knowledge whether natural stressors and the presence of pesticide resistance shape mixture toxicity. We tested the single and combined effects of the pesticide chlorpyrifos and the biopesticide Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) on the survival of the Southern house mosquito (Culex quinquefasciatus, Say) and whether these effects were magnified by synthetic predator cues of Notonecta water bugs and differed between a chlorpyrifos-resistant (Ace-1R) and non-resistant (S-Lab) strain.

RESULTS

Single exposure to Bti caused mortality in both strains (S-Lab ∼27%, Ace-1R ∼41%) and single exposure to chlorpyrifos caused only mortality in the S-Lab strain (∼33%), while predator cues did not induce mortality. The chlorpyrifos-resistant strain was 1.5-fold more sensitive to Bti, indicating a cost of resistance. The interaction types between chlorpyrifos and Bti (additive), between chlorpyrifos and predator cues (additive), and between Bti and predator cues (synergistic) were consistent in both strains. Despite predator cues making Bti approximately 8% more lethal, they did not change the additive interaction between Bti and chlorpyrifos in their mixture in either strain.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that the resistance against chlorpyrifos was not partly lifted when chlorpyrifos exposure was combined with Bti and predator cues. Identifying the interaction type within pesticide mixtures and how this depends on natural stressors is important to select control strategies that give a disadvantage to resistant individuals compared to non-resistant individuals. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Toxicity of the insecticides spinosad and indoxacarb to the non-target aquatic midge Chironomus riparius

Spinosad and indoxacarb are two relatively new insecticides mainly used in agriculture to control insect pests. However, at their current application rates, non-target aquatic insect species may also be impacted. In this study, larvae of the non-biting midge Chironomus riparius were exposed in the laboratory to both insecticides and their effects evaluated at the organismal level, using standard ecotoxicological tests, and at the biochemical level, by monitoring specific oxidative stress, neuronal, and energy metabolism biomarkers. Chronic exposure to both insecticides compromised growth and emergence of C. riparius. Short-term exposures revealed alterations at biochemical level that might be related to the toxicological targets of both insecticides. Growth and development time were the most sensitive endpoints at individual level for both pesticides, while at the biochemical level, the electron transport system activity was the most sensitive biomarker for spinosad exposure, suggesting an increase in energy demands associated with the activation of defense mechanisms. Glutathione-S-transferase was the most sensitive biomarker for indoxacarb exposure, underlining the role of this enzyme in the detoxification of indoxacarb. Additionally, changes in lactate dehydrogenase and glutathione peroxidase activities were observed for both insecticides, and evidences of oxidative damage were found for spinosad. This study contributes to the growing knowledge on sublethal effects of novel insecticides on non-target aquatic invertebrates and strengthens the usefulness of biochemical biomarkers to support the interpretation of their potentially deleterious effects on aquatic insects near agricultural fields.

The trouble with surrogates in environmental risk assessment: a daphniid case study

The use of indicator species to test for environmental stability and functioning is a widespread practice. In aquatic systems, several daphniids (Cladocera: Daphniidae) are commonly used as indicator species; registration of new pesticides are mandated by the Environmental Protection Agency to be accompanied by daphniid toxicity data. This reliance upon a few species to infer ecosystem health and function assumes similar responses to toxicants across species with potentially very different life histories and susceptibility. Incorporating lab-derived life-history data into a simple mathematical model, we explore the reliability of three different daphniid species as surrogates for each other by comparing their responses to reductions in survivorship and fecundity after simulated exposure to toxicants. Our results demonstrate that daphniid species' responses to toxicant exposure render them poor surrogates for one another, highlighting that caution should be exercised in using a surrogate approach to the use of indicator species in risk assessment.

Low-Dose Effects: Nonmonotonic Responses for the Toxicity of a Bacillus thuringiensis Biocide to Daphnia magna

Currently, there is a trend toward an increasing use of biopesticides assumed to be environmentally friendly, such as Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Studies of the Bt toxicity to nontarget organisms have reported low effects at high exposure levels, which is interpreted as indicating negligible risk to nontarget organisms. We investigated the response of the nontarget organism Daphnia magna to waterborne DiPel ES, a globally used Bt formulation. Neonates and adults were exposed for 48 h to a wide range of concentrations, and immobilization and mortality were monitored. Whole body biomarkers (body weight, protein, chitobiase, catalase, xenobiotic metabolism, and acetylcholinesterase) were measured in the adults. The immobilization and mortality of the neonates were affected in a nonmonotonic and inverted U-shaped pattern with EC₅₀s that were ∼10⁵-fold lower than those reported by the manufacturer. The immobilization of adults demonstrated a similar pattern, but significant mortality was not observed. The biomarker results revealed multiphasic dose-response curves, which suggested toxicity mechanisms that affected various physiological pathways. The main particle size in exposure media was in the size range of bacterial spores and crystal toxins. However, the chemical heterogeneity was nonmonotonic, with a change in the phase at the maximum of toxicity (∼5 μL L^-1), which might explain the observed nonmonotonic effects. These results demonstrate the vulnerability of a nontarget organism to a biopesticide that is considered to be safe, while challenging the universal applicability of the central ecotoxicological assumption of monotonicity.

Effects of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis on nonstandard microcrustacean species isolated from field zooplankton communities

The toxicity of Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis on zooplanktonic microcrustaceans was evaluated using individuals collected in coastal wetlands where this larvicide has been used for mosquito control over the last decades. We tested five zooplankton species that coexist with mosquito larvae: two copepods (both nauplii and adults of Tropocyclops prasinus and Acantocyclops americanus), and three cladocerans (Ceriodaphnia reticulata, Chydorus sphaericus, and Daphnia cf. pulex). Our experiments included seven replicates of six concentrations (Bti Vectobac12AS 1200 Bti ITU/mg): 0, 5, 25, 50, 250, and 500 mg L^-1. We analyzed acute and sub-chronic effects after a single inoculation. Despite the high variability of responses among our tested organisms, we found a general pattern of increasing mortality with concentration and time. We conclude that negative effects at the community level are not unlikely as some species were affected at doses close to those used in field applications.

Genetically modified rice Bt-Shanyou63 expressing Cry1Ab/c protein does not harm Daphnia magna

The genetically modified (GM) rice Bt-ShanYou63 (Bt-SY63) received an official biosafety certificate while its safety remained in dispute. In a lifelong study, Daphnia magna were experimentally fed a basal diet of rice flours from Bt-SY63 or its parental rice ShanYou63 (SY63) at concentrations of 0.2mg, 0.3mg, or 0.4mgC (per individual per day). Overall the survival, body size, and reproduction of the animals were comparable between Bt-SY63 and ShanYou63.. The results showed that no significant differences were observed in growth and reproduction parameters between D. magna fed GM and non-GM flour and no dose-related changes occurred in all the values. Based on the different parameters assessed, the GM rice Bt-SY63 is a safe food source for D. magna that does not differ in quality from non-GM rice.

Effects of Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis and spinosad on adult emergence of the non-biting midges Polypedilum nubifer (Skuse) and Tanytarsus curticornis Kieffer (Diptera: Chironomidae) in coastal wetlands

To optimize their efficacy, some insecticides used for mosquito control are introduced into aquatic ecosystems where mosquito larvae develop (marshes, ponds, sanitation devices) and cannot escape from the treated water. However, this raises the question of possible effects of mosquito larvicides on non-target aquatic species. Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti), which is well-known for its selectivity for Nematocera dipterans, is widely used for mosquito control all over the world. Spinosad, a mixture of spinosyns A and D known as fermentation products of a soil actinomycete (Saccharopolyspora spinosa), is a biological neurotoxic insecticide with a broader action spectrum. It is a candidate larvicide for mosquito control, but some studies showed that it may be toxic to beneficial or non-target species, including non-biting midges. The present study was therefore undertaken to assess the impact of Bti and spinosad on natural populations of Polypedilum nubifer (Skuse) and Tanytarsus curticornis Kieffer (Diptera: Chironomidae) in field enclosures implemented in Mediterranean coastal wetlands. Unlike Bti, spinosad had a strong lethal effect on P. nubifer and seems to affect T. curticornis at presumed recommended rates for field application. Differences in the sensitivity of these two species to spinosad confirm that population dynamics need to be known for a proper assessment of the risk encountered by chironomids in wetlands where larvicide-based mosquito control occurs.

The effects of spinosad on Culex quinquefasciatus and three nontarget insect species

Spinosad is a relatively new insecticide with a unique mode of action that is being evaluated for control of larval mosquitoes. Whereas a number of toxicological studies have measured effects of spinosad on various animals, few have been conducted on the effects of spinosad on nontarget, aquatic insect species. Such studies are important as these species might be found in the same environments as mosquito larvae targeted for control. A neighborhood pond was surveyed to find a representative species of mosquito as well as other common aquatic insects with which to examine susceptibility to spinosad and nontarget effects. The mosquito species chosen was Culex quinquefasciatus and the most common nontarget taxa were immature stages of a mayfly (Caenis sp., Ephemeroptera: Caenidae), a damselfly (Ischnura sp., Odonata: Coenagrionidae), and a dragonfly (Pachydiplax longipennis, Odonata: Libellulidae). Bioassays of mosquitoes from a reference susceptible strain (Sebring-S) and field collections of Cx. quinquefasciatus were used to determine susceptibility to spinosad. In addition, susceptibility was examined in nontarget taxa using spinosad concentrations corresponding to the LC50 of field-collected mosquitoes (0.031 ppm) and the maximum label rate (1.6 ppm) of spinosad (Natular EC). Susceptibility to spinosad did not differ between Sebring-S and field-collected mosquitoes. However, there was a marked difference in susceptibility among nontarget taxa. Susceptibility was greatest in Caenis sp., followed by Ischnura sp., and then P. longipennis.

Chitobiase activity as an indicator of altered survival, growth and reproduction in Daphnia pulex and Daphnia magna (Crustacea: Cladocera) exposed to spinosad and diflubenzuron

Chitobiase is involved in exoskeleton degradation and recycling during the moulting process in arthropods. In aquatic species, the moulting fluid is released into the aqueous environment, and chitobiase activity present therein can be used to follow the dynamics of arthropod populations. Here, chitobiase activity was used for monitoring the impact of mosquito candidate larvicides on Daphnia pulex and Daphnia magna under laboratory conditions. Both species were exposed to spinosad (2, 4, 8 μg L(-1)) and diflubenzuron (0.2, 0.4, 0.8 μg L(-1)) for 14 days. Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti; 0.25, 0.5, 1 μL L(-1)) was used as the reference larvicide. Chitobiase activity, adult survival, individual growth and fecundity, expressed as the number of neonates produced, were measured every 2 days. Average Exposure Concentrations of spinosad were ten-fold lower than the nominal concentrations, whereas only a slight deviation was observed for diflubenzuron. In contrast to Bti, spinosad and diflubenzuron significantly affected both species in terms of adult survival, and production of neonates. As compared to D. pulex, D. magna was more severely affected by diflubenzuron, at low and medium concentrations, with reduced adult growth and much lower chitobiase activity. Chitobiase activity was positively correlated with the individual body length, number of neonates produced between two consecutive observation dates, and number of females and neonates. In addition, the significant positive correlations between chitobiase activity measured on the last sampling date before the first emission of neonates and the cumulative number of neonates produced during the whole observation period strongly support the potential of the activity of this chitinolytic enzyme as a proxy for assessing the dynamics of arthropod populations exposed to larvicides used for mosquito control.