Meta-Analyses of the Effects of Tier 2 Type Reading Interventions in Grades K-3

An approach designed to fail deaf children and their parents and how to change it

The matter of raising and educating deaf children has been caught up in percepts of development that are persistently inaccurate and at odds with scientific research. These percepts have negatively impacted the health and quality of life of deaf children and deaf people in general. The all too prevalent advice is to raise the child strictly orally and wait to see what happens. Only when the child is seriously behind is a completely accessible language - a sign language - introduced, and that is far too late for protecting cognitive health. The medical profession, along with others, needs to offer parents better advice and better supports so that neither the children nor their parents wait and watch as the oral-only method fails. All must take responsible action to assure an approach that succeeds.

Evidence-Based Reading Instruction for Secondary Students With Reading Difficulties Within Multitiered Systems of Support

Christian Scott recently returned home from college and was set to begin his first year as a middle school special education teacher. During his first meeting with his new principal, he learned about his teaching schedule. His principal, Mrs. Walker, explained their district was making a push for using multitiered systems of support (MTSS) as a framework for instruction. Her school would identify students with reading difficulties based on their performance on prior state reading tests and use this information to develop student schedules that allow students to receive additional reading interventions (i.e., Tier 2, Tier 3). Christian would teach reading to students with disabilities on his caseload across instructional tiers (Tiers 1-3). He would be tasked with providing co-teaching support for students with disabilities as they participate in general education classes (i.e., Tier 1). He would also provide additional Tier 2 supports to students with and without disabilities that did not pass the state achievement test in reading. Finally, he would provide intensive interventions to students with disabilities who required small group instruction (Tier 3). Having just received his special education teaching credential, Christian was familiar with the co-teaching service delivery model and the elements of effective instruction for middle school students with reading difficulties. However, he wondered, "What will this actually look like? How will I support the general education teacher providing Tier 1 supports? It sounds like I will also provide Tier 2-type instruction to students via a reading intervention class. What should this look like? How will this differ from the small group, Tier 3 instruction I need to provide?" Christian's mind raced with questions he was too nervous to ask in his first meeting with his new supervisor. The special education lead teacher noticed Christian seemed unsure how to respond. She jumped in, "Don't worry, Christian. School doesn't start for a few weeks. I'll help you with the details so you can hit the ground running." Christian felt excited about the challenge but also overwhelmed. Planning lessons for students with varying needs across instructional tiers was a tall order, and he felt unsure about how to get started.

Revisiting the definition of dyslexia

The International Dyslexia Association definition of dyslexia was updated 20 years ago and has been referenced frequently in research and practice. In this paper, researchers from the Florida Center for Reading Research consider the components of the definition and make recommendations for revisions. These include recognizing the persistence of word-reading, decoding, and spelling difficulties, acknowledging the multifactorial causal basis of dyslexia, clarifying exclusionary factors, and denoting comorbidity with other developmental disorders. It is also suggested that the academic and psychosocial consequences of dyslexia be highlighted to reinforce a preventive service delivery model. Lastly, the inclusion of dyslexia within a specific learning disability category is supported.

Empowering Schools to Implement Effective Research-Based Reading Remediation Delivers Long-Lasting Improvements to Children's Reading Trajectories

There is a wide gap between what research evidence identifies as effective reading intervention and what is currently offered in schools. This effectiveness study reports the results of a long-term research/school system partnership that is implementing reading intervention for children with reading difficulties in community schools. In Study 1, growth-curve analyses revealed significant long-term shifts in the reading trajectories of children (n = 731) from Kindergarten to Grade 5 as a function of receiving the Empower™ Reading: Decoding and Spelling intervention. Long-term outcomes were higher in children who received intervention in Grade 2 than in Grade 3, supporting the benefit of earlier intervention. In Study 2, we compare reading outcomes before and after children participated in school system-led intervention (Empower™ Reading, n = 341) to results from previously reported researcher-led intervention and business-as-usual controls. Children in both school system-led and researcher-led interventions showed greater improvement than controls on standardized measures of decoding and reading comprehension. Among school system participants, greater gains were seen for those with stronger reading skills at pre-test. Findings demonstrate successful school system implementation of research-originated and validated reading intervention. Researcher/school system partnerships may be integral in closing the research-practice gap.

Evaluating the Efficacy of a Narrative Language Intervention for Bilingual Students

PURPOSE

This study examines the narrative language and reading outcomes of monolingual and bilingual students who received instruction with the Supporting Knowledge in Language and Literacy (SKILL) program, a narrative language intervention.

METHOD

The main effects of the SKILL program were evaluated in a randomized controlled trial in which students (N = 355) who were at risk for English language and literacy difficulties were randomized to the SKILL intervention or a business-as-usual instruction. This article reports secondary analyses examining the efficacy of SKILL for bilingual (n = 148) and monolingual (n = 207) students who completed measures of oral and written narrative language and reading comprehension in English.

RESULTS

Moderation results showed that the effects of SKILL did not differ for monolinguals and bilinguals across most narrative language measures and did not vary for monolinguals or bilinguals based on their pre-intervention language performance.

CONCLUSION

These findings that suggest a language-based approach to improving narrative production and comprehension yielded similar results for monolinguals and bilinguals and that neither monolinguals nor bilinguals in this study needed to meet a certain threshold of English language proficiency to benefit from the intervention.

Investigating the Reading Profiles of Middle School Emergent Bilinguals with Significant Reading Comprehension Difficulties

Purpose

This study investigated the reading profiles of middle school Spanish-speaking emergent bilinguals (EBs) with significantly below grade level reading comprehension and whether these profiles varied in their reading comprehension performance over time.

Method

Latent profile analyses were used to classify Grade 6 and 7 Hispanic EBs (n = 340; 39% female) into subgroups based on their word reading and vocabulary knowledge. Growth models were then fit within each profile to evaluate reading comprehension performance over time.

Results

Analyses revealed four latent profiles emerged: (a) very low word reading and low vocabulary (10%), (b) low word reading and low vocabulary (71%), (c) average word reading and low vocabulary (16%), and (d) high word reading and low vocabulary (3%). Subgroups varied in their reading comprehension initially and over one year. Students in the subgroup marked by very low word reading and low vocabulary showed the lowest reading comprehension performance initially; however, they also showed the greatest growth over one year.

Conclusion

These findings suggest there is heterogeneity in the reading skill profiles of Spanish-speaking EBs with reading comprehension difficulties. They also underscore the prevalence of word reading difficulties among these students. These may be important factors to consider when developing interventions to prevent and remediate these difficulties.

Examining fidelity reporting within studies of foundational reading interventions for elementary students with or at risk for dyslexia

Early access to evidence-based reading intervention improves outcomes for students with or at risk for reading difficulties. Additionally, teacher implementation of reading interventions plays a key role in the efficacy of reading interventions. Previous research suggests the influence of intervention implementation fidelity on student language and literacy outcomes is more significant for lower-performing students and students with disabilities, such as dyslexia. However, recent syntheses have suggested that less than half of reading intervention studies report treatment fidelity data. This meta-analysis examined fidelity reporting within reading intervention studies for students with or at risk for dyslexia in Grades K-5. We aimed to record the frequency and extent of fidelity reporting, explore associations between study or intervention features and fidelity reporting, and compare mean intervention effect sizes for studies reporting fidelity and those that did not. A total of 51 studies were included. Results indicated that 75% of studies reported fidelity data. Studies reporting fidelity primarily focused on adherence and dosage data with little to no information reported for other dimensions of fidelity (i.e., quality, responsiveness, differentiation). Suggestions for improving reporting of treatment fidelity data are discussed.

Student Behavior Ratings and Response to Tier 1 Reading Intervention: Which Students Do Not Benefit?

Core reading instruction and interventions have differential effects based on student characteristics such as cognitive ability and pre-intervention skill level. Evidence for differential effect based on affective characteristics is scant and ambiguous; however, students with problem behavior are more often non-responsive to core reading instruction and intensive reading interventions. In this study, we estimated the range of students' behavior ratings in which a core reading instruction intervention was effective using a data set including 3,024 students in K-3. Data came from seven independent studies evaluating the Individualized Student Instruction (ISI) Tier 1 reading intervention and were pooled using integrative data analysis. We estimated Johnson-Neyman intervals of student behavior ratings that showed a treatment effect both at the within and between classroom level. ISI was effective in improving reading scores (b=0.51, p=.020, d = 0.08). However, students with very low or very high behavior ratings did not benefit from the approaches (range of behavior rating factor scores: -0.95 - 2.87). At the classroom level, students in classrooms with a higher average of problem behaviors did not benefit from ISI (average classroom behavior rating factor score: 0.05 - 4.25). Results suggest differentiating instruction alone is not enough for students with behavior problems to grow in reading ability.

Are Reading Interventions Effective for At-Risk Readers with ADHD? A Meta-Analysis

OBJECTIVE

Utilizing a multi-level meta-analytic approach, this review is the first to systematically quantify the efficacy of reading interventions for school-aged children with ADHD and identify potential factors that may increase the success of reading-related interventions for these children.

METHOD

18 studies (15 peer-reviewed articles, 3 dissertations) published from 1986 to 2020 (N = 564) were meta-analyzed.

RESULTS

Findings revealed reading interventions are highly effective for improving reading skills based on both study-developed/curriculum-based measures (g = 1.91) and standardized/norm-referenced achievement tests (g = 1.11) in high-quality studies of children with rigorously-diagnosed ADHD. Reading interventions that include at least 30 hours of intervention targeting decoding/phonemic awareness meet all benchmarks to be considered a Level 1 (Well-Established) Evidence-Based Practice with Strong Research Support for children with ADHD based on clinical and special education criteria.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings collectively indicate that reading interventions should be the first-line treatment for reading difficulties among at-risk readers with ADHD.

The impact of computer–assisted technology on literacy acquisition during COVID-19-related school closures: Group–level effects and predictors of individual–level outcomes

Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic led to school closure and loss of in-person instruction during the 2019–2020 academic year across the United States, which had a profound impact on the reading development of beginning readers. In this study we tested if a research-informed educational technology (EdTech) program–GraphoLearn–could help alleviate the COVID-19 slide. We also sought to understand the profiles of children who benefitted most from this EdTech program.

Methods

We tested participants’ (N = 172 K-2 children) early literacy skills using a standardized measure (STAR) before and after playing GraphoLearn, and used the pre to post difference as the dependent variable. We first compared children’s STAR actual and expected growth. Then we conducted a multiple regression analysis with data about engagement with GraphoLearn included as predictors. Additional predictors were extracted from GraphoLearn performance at study onset to assess children’s letter-sound knowledge, rime awareness, and word recognition.

Results

The difference between actual average reading growth and expected growth in a regular school year was not statistically significant. This suggests that children in our sample seem to be gaining reading skills as expected in a regular school year. Our multiple linear regression model (which accounted for R2 = 48% of reading growth) showed that older children, with higher baseline GraphoLearn word recognition, who played more units in a fixed number of days, made significantly more early literacy progress.

Discussion

While lacking a control group, our preliminary results suggest that an EdTech program such as GraphoLearn may be a useful reading instructional tool during school shutdowns. In addition, our results suggest that practice with GraphoLearn was more effective and efficient when foundational instruction was already in place.

Co-Occurrence of Reading and Writing Difficulties: The Application of the Interactive Dynamic Literacy Model

This article presents the application of the interactive dynamic literacy (IDL) model (Kim, 2020b) toward understanding difficulties in learning to read and write. According to the IDL model, reading and writing are part of communicative acts that draw on largely shared processes and skills as well as unique processes and skills. As such, reading and writing are dissociable but interdependent systems that have hierarchical, interactive, and dynamic relations. These key tenets of the IDL model are applied to the disruption of reading and writing development to explain co-occurrence of reading-writing difficulties using a single framework. The following hypotheses are presented: (a) co-occurrence between word reading and spelling and handwriting difficulties; (b) co-occurrence of dyslexia with written composition difficulties; (c) co-occurrence between reading comprehension and written composition difficulties; (d) co-occurrence of language difficulties with reading difficulties and writing difficulties; (e) co-occurrence of reading, writing, and language difficulties with weak domain-general skills or executive functions such as working memory and attentional control (including attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]); and (f) multiple pathways for reading and writing difficulties. Implications are discussed.

Engaging, Explicit, and Elaborated: An Initial Trial of Media-Enhanced Preschool Vocabulary Instruction

Children from backgrounds of poverty often lag behind more advantaged peers in early language skills, including breadth and depth of vocabulary knowledge. We report the results of a pilot study of an explicit and elaborated vocabulary intervention in preschool classrooms serving children from lower-income backgrounds. The intervention used multimodal instruction, including segments from public television children's programs and interactive games, to build children's knowledge of and semantic connections for 128 words across 18 weeks of daily lessons. Within 39 classrooms representing childcare, Head Start, and public prekindergarten settings, 192 preschool-age children (M = 52.10 months) participated in structured lessons and extension activities delivered by teachers and aides. Within-child comparisons of growth for taught target words versus matched untaught words revealed that children grew on all words but demonstrated significantly greater growth for taught words. Results support the value of elaborated and explicit vocabulary instruction and the role of visual media as contexts for preschooler's word learning.

Predicting and Evaluating Treatment Response: Evidence Toward Protracted Response Patterns for Severely Impacted Students With Dyslexia

Great strides have been made in the development of effective methods of instruction for children with dyslexia. However, individual response to treatment varies, and weaknesses persist for some students with dyslexia despite otherwise effective instruction. Continued efforts are needed to support the prospective identification of poor response, particularly in routine intervention settings. The current study addressed whether indicators of dyslexia risk as outlined by hybrid diagnostic models predict response in children who received Tier 3 dyslexia intervention in their schools. The program's efficacy has been previously documented in remediating reading abilities in children with dyslexia. Data were examined from 115 elementary-age children who received routine Tier 3 dyslexia intervention in their schools. Logistic regression revealed powerful effects of preintervention fluency and gender in predicting response, with weaker effects of decoding and rapid naming. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder status also played a role in predicting response. Phonological awareness and listening-reading comprehension discrepancy did not predict response. Profile analyses indicated near- and far-transfer of skill for the adequate response group, whereas growth in the poor response group was limited to near-transfer. Findings support a continuum of severity that may be associated with less robust growth and generalization over the course of the intervention.

The Functional Neuroanatomy of Reading Intervention

The present article reviews the literature on the brain mechanisms underlying reading improvements following behavioral intervention for reading disability. This includes evidence of neuroplasticity concerning functional brain activation, brain structure, and brain connectivity related to reading intervention. Consequently, the functional neuroanatomy of reading intervention is compared to the existing literature on neurocognitive models and brain abnormalities associated with reading disability. A particular focus is on the left hemisphere reading network including left occipito-temporal, temporo-parietal, and inferior frontal language regions. In addition, potential normalization/compensation mechanisms involving right hemisphere cortical regions, as well as bilateral sub-cortical and cerebellar regions are taken into account. The comparison of the brain systems associated with reading intervention and the brain systems associated with reading disability enhances our understanding of the neurobiological basis of typical and atypical reading development. All in all, however, there is a lack of sufficient evidence regarding rehabilitative brain mechanisms in reading disability, which we discuss in this review.

A better start literacy approach: effectiveness of Tier 1 and Tier 2 support within a response to teaching framework

The Better Start Literacy Approach (BSLA) is a strengths-based approach to supporting children's literacy learning in their first year of school. Previous research has shown the approach is effective at accelerating foundational literacy knowledge in children with lower levels of oral language. This study examined the impact of the BSLA for children with varied language profiles and across schools from diverse socioeconomic communities. Additionally, a controlled analysis of the impact of Tier 2 teaching within a response to teaching framework was undertaken. Participants included 402 five-year-old children from 14 schools in New Zealand. A randomised delayed treatment design was utilised to establish the effect of Tier 1 teaching. Analyses showed a significant Tier 1 intervention effect for phoneme awareness, letter-sound knowledge, non-word reading and non-word spelling. There was no difference in intervention effects across socioeconomic groupings. Children were identified for Tier 2 teaching after 10 weeks of Tier 1 implementation. The progress of 98 children in response to Tier 2 teaching was compared to 26 children who met Tier 2 criteria but received only Tier 1 teaching within this study. Children in the Tier 2 group scored significantly higher on phonological awareness, non-word reading, and spelling than the control group at the post-Tier 2 assessment point, after controlling for pre-Tier 2 scores. The results suggest that a proactive strengths-based approach to supporting foundational literacy learning in children's first year of school benefits all learners. The findings have important implications for early provision of literacy learning support in order to reduce current inequities in literacy outcomes.

An Intervention in Reading Disabilities Using a Digital Tool During the COVID-19 Pandemic

In the last decade, ICT-based interventions for developing reading skills in children with reading disabilities have become increasingly popular. This study had three goals: (a) to assess the existence of gains in word reading, oral reading fluency and listening comprehension after a Tier 2 intervention using the digital tool “I’m still learning,” which was delivered partially in a remote modality during the COVID-19 pandemic; (b) to investigate whether the gains depended on the students’ gender, the number of sessions attended and the interventionist; and (c) to investigate parents’ perceptions about the suitability and perceived effects of the intervention. A single group design with pre-test and post-test was used. The intervention was delivered to second graders (N = 81) flagged as being at-risk for reading disabilities in a universal screening. The analyses showed significant gains in all three outcome variables after the intervention. The gains did not depend on students’ gender, number of intervention sessions attended or interventionist. Parents’ perceptions of the remote intervention were positive. The study findings highlight the potentialities of using technology-based interventions to foster reading skills and suggest that these may be especially useful during lockdowns.

A meta-analysis of the effects of foundational skills and multicomponent reading interventions on reading comprehension for primary-grade students

This meta-analysis examined the effects on reading comprehension of foundational reading skills and multicomponent reading interventions provided to students with or at risk for reading difficulties or disabilities (students with RDs) in kindergarten through Grade 3. The meta-analysis included studies identified by Wanzek et al. (2016) and Wanzek et al. (2018), with an updated search through August of 2019, for a total of 47 included studies (m = 112; total student N = 7446). The weighted average effect on norm-referenced reading comprehension outcomes was estimated as g = 0.37, indicating that primary-grade interventions have an educationally meaningful effect on reading comprehension for students with RDs. Effects did not differ for interventions focused only on foundational reading skills and those that provided both foundational skills and comprehension instruction. Effects were significantly moderated by the measurement timepoint, with follow-up effect sizes being, on average, 0.16 smaller than immediate posttest effect sizes.

Reading intervention and neuroplasticity: A systematic review and meta-analysis of brain changes associated with reading intervention

Behavioral research supports the efficacy of intervention for reading disability, but the brain mechanisms underlying improvement in reading are not well understood. Here, we review 39 neuroimaging studies of reading intervention to characterize links between reading improvement and changes in the brain. We report evidence of changes in activation, connectivity, and structure within the reading network, and right hemisphere, frontal and sub-cortical regions. Our meta-analysis of changes in brain activation from pre- to post- reading intervention in eight studies did not yield any significant effects. Methodological heterogeneity among studies may contribute to the lack of significant meta-analytic findings. Based on our qualitative synthesis, we propose that brain changes in response to intervention should be considered in terms of interactions among distributed cognitive, linguistic and sensory systems, rather than via a "normalized" vs. "compensatory" dichotomy. Further empirical research is needed to identify effects of moderating factors such as features of intervention programs, neuroimaging tasks, and individual differences among participants.

A cluster randomized controlled trial of brief follow-up practice sessions on intervention maintenance

Despite considerable knowledge of the factors that influence initial intervention response, little is known about how to sustain successful intervention response over time. The current study examined spring literacy outcomes for kindergarten (n = 177), second (n = 149), and third grade students (n = 204) who successfully exited an evidence-based tutoring program during the fall semester. Successful responders in kindergarten, second, and third grade were randomly assigned by school to receive either no follow-up support or access to a once-weekly oral practice session. Results were mixed across grades and outcomes, but in kindergarten and third grade, treatment corresponded to an approximately 15% increased likelihood of meeting year-end benchmarks on targeted literacy skills. Findings are discussed in the context of suggestions for higher-quality longitudinal research designs of educational interventions.

Examining the Reading and Cognitive Profiles of Students With Significant Reading Comprehension Difficulties

This study investigated the word reading and listening comprehension difficulties of fourth-grade students with significant reading comprehension deficits and the cognitive difficulties that underlie these weaknesses. Latent profile analysis was used to classify a sample of fourth-grade students (n = 446) who scored below the 16th percentile on a measure of reading comprehension into subgroups based on their performance in word reading (WR) and listening comprehension (LC). Three latent profiles emerged: (a) moderate deficits in both WR and LC of similar severity (91%), (b) severe deficit in WR paired with moderate LC deficit (5%), and (c) severe deficit in LC with moderate WR difficulties (4%). Analyses examining the associations between cognitive attributes and group membership indicated students with lower performance on cognitive predictors were more likely to be in a severe subgroup. Implications for educators targeting improved reading performance for upper elementary students with significant reading difficulties were discussed.

Targeted school-based interventions for improving reading and mathematics for students with or at risk of academic difficulties in Grades K-6: A systematic review

Background

Low levels of numeracy and literacy skills are associated with a range of negative outcomes later in life, such as reduced earnings and health. Obtaining information about effective interventions for children with or at risk of academic difficulties is therefore important.

Objectives

The main objective was to assess the effectiveness of interventions targeting students with or at risk of academic difficulties in kindergarten to Grade 6.

Search Methods

We searched electronic databases from 1980 to July 2018. We searched multiple international electronic databases (in total 15), seven national repositories, and performed a search of the grey literature using governmental sites, academic clearinghouses and repositories for reports and working papers, and trial registries (10 sources). We hand searched recent volumes of six journals and contacted international experts. Lastly, we used included studies and 23 previously published reviews for citation tracking.

Selection Criteria

Studies had to meet the following criteria to be included: Population: The population eligible for the review included students attending regular schools in kindergarten to Grade 6, who were having academic difficulties, or were at risk of such difficulties. Intervention: We included interventions that sought to improve academic skills, were conducted in schools during the regular school year, and were targeted (selected or indicated). Comparison: Included studies used an intervention-control group design or a comparison group design. We included randomised controlled trials (RCT); quasi-randomised controlled trials (QRCT); and quasi-experimental studies (QES). Outcomes: Included studies used standardised tests in reading or mathematics. Setting: Studies carried out in regular schools in an OECD country were included.

Data Collection and Analysis

Descriptive and numerical characteristics of included studies were coded by members of the review team. A review author independently checked coding. We used an extended version of the Cochrane Risk of Bias tool to assess risk of bias. We used random-effects meta-analysis and robust-variance estimation procedures to synthesise effect sizes. We conducted separate meta-analyses for tests performed within three months of the end of interventions (short-term effects) and longer follow-up periods. For short-term effects, we performed subgroup and moderator analyses focused on instructional methods and content domains. We assessed sensitivity of the results to effect size measurement, outliers, clustered assignment of treatment, risk of bias, missing moderator information, control group progression, and publication bias.

Results

We found in total 24,414 potentially relevant records, screened 4247 of them in full text, and included 607 studies that met the inclusion criteria. We included 205 studies of a wide range of intervention types in at least one meta-analysis (202 intervention-control studies and 3 comparison designs). The reasons for excluding studies from the analysis were that they had too high risk of bias (257), compared two alternative interventions (104 studies), lacked necessary information (24 studies), or used overlapping samples (17 studies). The total number of student observations in the analysed studies was 226,745. There were 93% RCTs among the 327 interventions we included in the meta-analysis of intervention-control contrasts and 86% were from the United States. The target group consisted of, on average, 45% girls, 65% minority students, and 69% low-income students. The mean Grade was 2.4. Most studies included in the meta-analysis had a moderate to high risk of bias.The overall average effect sizes (ES) for short-term and follow-up outcomes were positive and statistically significant (ES = 0.30, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.25, 0.34] and ES = 0.27, 95% CI = [0.17, 0.36]), respectively). The effect sizes correspond to around one third to one half of the achievement gap between fourth Grade students with high and low socioeconomic status in the United States and to a 58% chance that a randomly selected score of an intervention group student is greater than the score of a randomly selected control group student.All measures indicated substantial heterogeneity across short-term effect sizes. Follow-up outcomes pertain almost exclusively to studies examining small-group instruction by adults and effects on reading measures. The follow-up effect sizes were considerably less heterogeneous than the short-term effect sizes, although there was still statistically significant heterogeneity.Two instructional methods, peer-assisted instruction and small-group instruction by adults, had large and statistically significant average effect sizes that were robust across specifications in the subgroup analysis of short-term effects (ES around 0.35-0.45). In meta-regressions that adjusted for methods, content domains, and other study characteristics, they had significantly larger effect sizes than computer-assisted instruction, coaching of personnel, incentives, and progress monitoring. Peer-assisted instruction also had significantly larger effect sizes than medium-group instruction. Besides peer-assisted instruction and small-group instruction, no other methods were consistently significant across the analyses that tried to isolate the association between a specific method and effect sizes. However, most analyses showed statistically significant heterogeneity also within categories of instructional methods.We found little evidence that effect sizes were larger in some content domains than others. Fractions had significantly higher associations with effect sizes than all other math domains, but there were only six studies of interventions targeting fractions. We found no evidence of adverse effects in the sense that no method or domain had robustly negative associations with effect sizes.The meta-regressions revealed few other significant moderators. Interventions in higher Grades tend to have somewhat lower effect sizes, whereas there were no significant differences between QES and RCTs, general tests and tests of subdomains, and math tests and reading tests.

Authors’ Conclusions

Our results indicate that interventions targeting students with or at risk of academic difficulties from kindergarten to Grade 6 have on average positive and statistically significant short-term and follow-up effects on standardised tests in reading and mathematics. Peer-assisted instruction and small-group instruction are likely to be effective components of such interventions.We believe the relatively large effect sizes together with the substantial unexplained heterogeneity imply that schools can reduce the achievement gap between students with or at risk of academic difficulties and not-at-risk students by implementing targeted interventions, and that more research into the design of effective interventions is needed.

Comparing the Effects of Reading Intervention Versus Reading and Mindset Intervention for Upper Elementary Students With Reading Difficulties

The primary purpose of this study was to examine the effects of providing mindset intervention in addition to reading intervention compared with only reading intervention for fourth graders with reading difficulties. Reading intervention was provided daily in 45 min sessions throughout the school year. Mindset intervention occurred in small groups for 24-30 min lessons. Multilevel structural equation modeling (SEM) via n-level SEM was used to account for the latent variable representation of constructs, and the complex nesting and cross-classification structure of the data. Students in the reading intervention plus mindset condition significantly outperformed the business as usual condition on nonword reading (d = 0.35) as did students in the reading intervention condition (d = 0.20), who also outperformed the business as usual condition on phonological processing (d = 0.28). There were no significant differences among students in the three conditions on nonword reading, word reading, phonological processing, reading comprehension, or growth mindset. Initial reading achievement, mindset, and problem behavior did not generally moderate these findings.

Efficacy of the RtI Model in the Treatment of Reading Learning Disabilities

(1) Background: The response to intervention (RtI) model makes possible the early detection of reading problems and early intervention for students at risk. The purpose of this study is to analyze the effective measures that identify struggling readers and the most effective practices of the RtI model in reading in Primary Education. (2) Method: A systematic review of the literature published between 2010 and 2020 was performed, analyzing in the 31 selected articles, the identification and monitoring methods and the interventions at the different tiers of the RtI model. (3) Results: There are different methods to identify struggling readers, and there is no consensus on the matter. There are also many differences in the implementation of the different tiers of the RtI model; however, its effectiveness is demonstrated. (4) Conclusions: The implementation of the RtI model in a flexible way adapted to the circumstances of each moment, and can be considered as a highly effective resource in the prevention and early detection of reading learning problems.

Piloting the Response to Intervention Model in the Canary Islands: Prevention of Reading and Math Learning Disabilities

The main objective of this study was to examine the effectiveness of an intervention implemented by elementary school teachers within the context of the Response to Intervention (RtI) model. For this purpose, a Tier 2 or secondary intervention was implemented by Spanish-speaking teachers in grades K-3 after receiving training to implement RtI components with fidelity. A total of 1,923 at-risk students were assigned to treatment (in reading, n = 542; in math, n = 483) or control (in reading, n = 406; in math, n = 492). Teachers were provided with a support system that included two web-based training programs for reading (i.e., Letra program) and math (i.e., Primate program). Implementation fidelity was analyzed using direct observations and self-reports. All students were assessed three times during the academic year. A hierarchical linear growth modeling was conducted, and differences in the growth rate of reading and math performance were analyzed between at-risk students who have received the intervention and those who have not received it. Children at-risk in the intervention condition appeared to benefit more than at-risk children in the control condition. Moreover, findings indicate that the earlier the intervention, the greater the percentage of students who leave the situation of risk of learning difficulties in reading and math.

Analyzing the role of fidelity of RTI Tier 2 reading intervention in Spanish kindergarten and first grade students

This study examined the role of fidelity in the reading outcomes within a Tier 2 intervention implemented by Spanish kindergarten and first grade school teachers. For this purpose, differences in reading performance growth were analyzed among at-risk students who received a Tier 2 intervention with high fidelity, at-risk students who received the same intervention with medium fidelity, and an at-risk control group that did not receive a Tier 2 intervention. Implementation fidelity was analyzed using direct observations and self-reports. All students were assessed three times during the academic year. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses were conducted to explore differences in growth rate. The at-risk children in the intervention condition showed a higher growth compared to at-risk children in the control condition, and specifically when the intervention was delivered with a high degree of fidelity.

Promoting Reading Achievement in Children With Developmental Language Disorders: What Can We Learn From Research on Specific Language Impairment and Dyslexia?

Purpose Specific language impairment (SLI; see also developmental language disorder) and dyslexia are separate, yet frequently co-occurring disorders that confer risks to reading comprehension and academic achievement. Until recently, most studies of one disorder had little consideration of the other, and each disorder was addressed by different practitioners. However, understanding how the two disorders relate to each other is important for advancing theories about each disorder and improving reading comprehension and academic achievement. The purpose of this clinical focus article is to integrate research on SLI and dyslexia as well as advocate for the consideration of comorbidities in future research and clinical practice. Method The first section reviews definitions as well as inclusionary and exclusionary criteria for SLI and dyslexia. The second section reviews research demonstrating that SLI and dyslexia are different disorders that often co-occur. Studies examining language, working memory, and academic achievement in children with separate versus co-occurring SLI and dyslexia are reviewed. The final section compares and contrasts school identification frameworks for children with SLI and dyslexia and considers the potential benefits of incorporating broad language skills into response to intervention (RTI) assessment frameworks. Conclusions Children with weak language skills are at a high risk of experiencing reading problems, but language difficulties are often hidden from view. Directly addressing language skills within school RTI frameworks can help improve the identification and treatment of children with SLI and dyslexia as well as support improved reading comprehension and academic achievement for all students. Presentation Video https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.13063793.

How the Science of Reading Informs 21st-Century Education

The science of reading should be informed by an evolving evidence base built upon the scientific method. Decades of basic research and randomized controlled trials of interventions and instructional routines have formed a substantial evidence base to guide best practices in reading instruction, reading intervention, and the early identification of at-risk readers. The recent resurfacing of questions about what constitutes the science of reading is leading to misinformation in the public space that may be viewed by educational stakeholders as merely differences of opinion among scientists. Our goals in this paper are to revisit the science of reading through an epistemological lens to clarify what constitutes evidence in the science of reading and to offer a critical evaluation of the evidence provided by the science of reading. To this end, we summarize those things that we believe have compelling evidence, promising evidence, or a lack of compelling evidence. We conclude with a discussion of areas of focus that we believe will advance the science of reading to meet the needs of all children in the 21st century.

Comparison of Reading Growth Among Students With Severe Reading Deficits Who Received Intervention to Typically Achieving Students and Students Receiving Special Education

This study compared the reading growth of students with and without learning disabilities, and students with and without reading deficits in response to tier 2 reading interventions within a response-to-intervention framework. Participants were 499 second- and third-grade students in six urban schools. Students who scored at or below the 10th percentile on the fall reading screening assessment were identified as having a severe reading deficit and received a tier 2 reading intervention that was targeted to their needs. Results showed a significant effect between groups on reading growth. Students with severe reading deficits receiving targeted tier 2 intervention grew at a rate that equaled the rate of growth of students without reading deficits and was significantly higher than students who were receiving special education services for reading. Implications for practice, suggestions for future research, and study limitations are discussed.

The Critical Role of Word Reading as a Predictor of Response to Intervention

This study examines the initial word reading performance of fourth-grade struggling readers and the extent to which differing levels of word reading performance at pretest influenced their response to reading interventions. A large group of students with significant reading comprehension difficulties (N = 481) were classified into three clusters of word reading proficiency based on their pretest performance: (a) very low, (b) low, and (c) near adequate. We examined their performance on several academic, language, and executive functioning measures at the beginning of the year and their reading comprehension performance at the beginning of year and after 1 year of reading intervention to examine how each cluster responded to instruction. Results from a discriminant function analysis indicated that performance on five pretest variables were meaningful predictors of word reading proficiency cluster membership: phonological processing, writing fluency, math calculation, math fluency, and reading efficiency and comprehension. Results also demonstrated that word reading proficiency at pretest was related to response to intervention on reading comprehension measures. Students in the very low word reading proficiency cluster showed minimal response to intervention whereas the near-adequate word reading cluster demonstrated greatest response to intervention. These results suggest word reading is a critical predictor of response to intervention for students with significant comprehension problems in the upper elementary grades and that students with the most substantial word reading problems may require more intensive and specialized treatments than students with greater word reading performance to show meaningful progress in reading.

Are Reading Interventions for English Language Learners Effective? A Meta-Analysis

Despite concerted efforts to improve the reading skills of English language learners (ELLs), it remains unclear if the interventions they have been receiving produce any positive results. Thus, the purpose of this meta-analysis was to examine how effective reading interventions are in improving ELLs' reading skills and what factors may influence their effectiveness. Twenty-six studies with reported outcomes for pretest and posttest were selected, and four moderators (group size, intensity of intervention, students' risk status, and type of intervention) were coded. The results of random-effects analyses showed that the reading interventions had a large effect on ELLs' reading accuracy ( d = 1.221) and reading fluency ( d = 0.802) and a moderate effect on reading comprehension ( d = 0.499). In addition, for real-word reading accuracy, intervention groups composed of more than five students were less effective than groups composed of two to five students, and longer intervention sessions were less effective than shorter ones. Overall, our findings suggest that reading interventions have positive effects on ELLs' reading skills, and they should not be delayed until these students have reached a certain level of oral English proficiency.

The Relationship Between Study Quality and the Effects of Supplemental Reading Interventions: A Meta-Analysis

Empirical studies investigating supplemental reading interventions for students with or at-risk for reading disabilities in the early elementary grades have demonstrated a range of effect sizes. Identifying the findings from high quality research can provide greater certainty of findings related to the effectiveness of supplemental reading interventions. This meta-analysis investigated how four variables of study quality (study design, statistical treatment, Type I error, and fidelity of implementation) were related to effect sizes from standardized measures of foundational reading skills and language/comprehension. The results from 88 studies indicated that year of publication was a significant predictor of effect sizes for both standardized measures of foundational reading skills and language/comprehension, with more recent studies demonstrating smaller effect sizes. Results also demonstrated that with the exception of research design predicting effect sizes on foundational reading skills measures, study quality was not related to the effects of supplemental reading interventions. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Examining How Treatment Fidelity Is Supported, Measured, and Reported in K-3 Reading Intervention Research

Treatment fidelity data (descriptive and statistical) are critical to interpreting and generalizing outcomes of intervention research. Despite recommendations for treatment fidelity reporting from funding agencies and researchers, past syntheses have found treatment fidelity is frequently unreported (e.g., Swanson, The Journal of Special Education, 47, 3-13, 2011) in educational interventions and fidelity data are seldom used to analyze its relation to student outcomes (O'Donnell, Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 33-84, 2008). The purpose of this synthesis was to examine how treatment fidelity is supported, measured, and reported in reading intervention studies conducted with students at risk or with reading difficulties in grades K-3 from 1995 through 2015. All studies (k = 175) were coded to extract and classify information related to (a) the characteristics of the intervention study (e.g., publication year, research design); (b) treatment implementer training and support; (c) treatment fidelity data collection procedures, dimensions (i.e., adherence, quality, receipt, dosage, and differentiation), and levels of treatment fidelity data; and (d) the use of fidelity scores in the analysis of treatment effects. Results indicated that less than half (47%) of the reading intervention studies synthesized reported treatment fidelity data (numeric or narrative). Exploratory analyses showed that several study features were associated with the prevalence of fidelity reporting. Studies reporting treatment fidelity largely measured treatment adherence, and scores were, on average, high. Other dimensions of treatment fidelity (e.g., treatment differentiation), and analyses relating fidelity data to outcomes, were consistently absent from the corpus of reading intervention studies reviewed. Recommendations for enhancing how treatment fidelity data in intervention studies are collected and reported are presented.

Current Evidence on the Effects of Intensive Early Reading Interventions

Many students at risk for or identified with reading disabilities need intensive reading interventions. This meta-analysis provides an update to the Wanzek and Vaughn synthesis on intensive early reading interventions. Effects from 25 reading intervention studies are analyzed to examine the overall effect of intensive early reading interventions as well as relationships between intervention and student characteristics related to outcomes. The weighted mean effect size (ES) estimate (ES = 0.39), with a mean effect size adjusted for publication bias (ES = 0.28), both significantly different from zero, suggested intensive early reading interventions resulted in positive outcomes for early struggling readers in kindergarten through third grades. There was no statistically significant or meaningful heterogeneity in the study-wise effect sizes. Exploratory examination of time in intervention, instructional group size, initial reading achievement, and date of publication are provided.

Examining the Effects of Afterschool Reading Interventions for Upper Elementary Struggling Readers

We examined the efficacy of an afterschool multicomponent reading intervention for third- through fifth-grade students with reading difficulties. A total of 419 students were identified for participation based on a 90 standard score or below on a screening measure of the Test of Silent Reading Efficiency and Comprehension. Participating students were randomly assigned to a business as usual comparison condition or one of two reading treatments. All treatment students received 30 min of computer-based instruction plus 30 min of small-group tutoring for four to five times per week. No statistically significant reading comprehension posttest group differences were identified (p > .05). The limitations of this study included high attrition and absenteeism. These findings extend those from a small sample of experimental studies examining afterschool reading interventions and provide initial evidence that more instruction, after school, may not yield the desired outcome of improved comprehension.