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Chen Z, Huo X, Huang Y, Cheng Z, Xu X, Li Z. Elevated plasma solMER concentrations link ambient PM 2.5 and PAHs to myocardial injury and reduced left ventricular systolic function in children. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 355:124151. [PMID: 38740242 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2023] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is known to be associated with the polarization of pro-inflammatory macrophages and the development of various cardiovascular diseases. The pro-inflammatory polarization of resident cardiac macrophages (cMacs) enhances the cleavage of membrane-bound myeloid-epithelial-reproductive receptor tyrosine kinase (MerTK) and promotes the formation of soluble MerTK (solMER). This process influences the involvement of cMacs in cardiac repair, thus leading to an imbalance in cardiac homeostasis, myocardial injury, and reduced cardiac function. However, the relative impacts of PM2.5 and PAHs on human cMacs have yet to be elucidated. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effects of PM2.5 and PAH exposure on solMER in terms of myocardial injury and left ventricular (LV) systolic function in healthy children. A total of 258 children (aged three to six years) were recruited from Guiyu (an area exposed to e-waste) and Haojiang (a reference area). Mean daily PM2.5 concentration data were collected to calculate the individual chronic daily intake (CDI) of PM2.5. We determined concentrations of solMER and creatine kinase MB (CKMB) in plasma, and hydroxylated PAHs (OH-PAHs) in urine. LV systolic function was evaluated by stroke volume (SV). Higher CDI values and OH-PAH concentrations were detected in the exposed group. Plasma solMER and CKMB were higher in the exposed group and were associated with a reduced SV. Elevated CDI and 1-hydroxynaphthalene (1-OHNa) were associated with a higher solMER. Furthermore, increased solMER concentrations were associated with a lower SV and higher CKMB. CDI and 1-OHNa were positively associated with CKMB and mediated by solMER. In conclusion, exposure to PM2.5 and PAHs may lead to the pro-inflammatory polarization of cMacs and increase the risk of myocardial injury and systolic function impairment in children. Furthermore, the pro-inflammatory polarization of cMacs may mediate cardiotoxicity caused by PM2.5 and PAHs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihan Chen
- Department of Cardiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515000, Guangdong, China; Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 15041, Guangdong, China
| | - Xia Huo
- Laboratory of Environmental Medicine and Developmental Toxicology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 511443, Guangdong, China
| | - Yu Huang
- Laboratory of Environmental Medicine and Developmental Toxicology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhiheng Cheng
- Laboratory of Environmental Medicine and Developmental Toxicology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, China; Department of Pathology and Medical Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713, GZ, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Xijin Xu
- Laboratory of Environmental Medicine and Developmental Toxicology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, China; Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515041, Guangdong, China
| | - Zhi Li
- Department of Cardiology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Shantou University Medical College, Shantou, 515000, Guangdong, China.
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Su W, Yin Y, Cheng Y, Yu S, Hu R, Zhang H, Hu J, Ren R, Zhang Y, Zhao J, Wang A, Lyu Z, Mu Y, Gao J. The phenotype and related gene expressions of macrophages in adipose tissue of T2D mice following MSCs infusion. Immunobiology 2024; 229:152788. [PMID: 38309141 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2024.152788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Revised: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2024] [Indexed: 02/05/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Infusion of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) induces polarization of M2 macrophages in adipose tissue of type 2 diabetes (T2D) mice. Studies have shown that M2 macrophages were divided into four sub-phenotypes (M2a, M2b, M2c and M2d) with different functions, and manuscripts have also confirmed that macrophages co-cultured with MSCs were not matched with known four phenotype macrophages. Therefore, our study explored the phenotype and related gene expressions of macrophages in the adipose tissue of T2D mice with/without MSCs infusion. METHODS We induced a T2D mouse model by using high-fat diets and streptozotocin (STZ) injection. The mice were divided into three groups: the control group, the T2D group, and the MSCs group. MSCs were systemically injected once a week for 6 weeks. The phenotype of macrophages in adipose tissue was detected via flow cytometric analysis. We also investigated the gene expression of macrophages in different groups via SMART-RNA-sequencing and quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). RESULTS The present study found that the macrophages of adipose tissue in the MSCs group were polarized to the M2 phenotype mixed with four sub-phenotypes. Besides, M2a and M2c held a dominant position, while M2b and M2d (tumor-associated macrophages, TAMs) exhibited a decreasing trend after infusion of MSCs. Moreover, the MSCs group did not appear to express higher levels of tumor-associated, inflammation-associated, or fibrosis-associated genes in comparison to the T2D group. CONCLUSION The present results unveiled that the macrophage phenotype was inclined to be present in a hybridity state of four M2 sub-phenotypes and the genes related to tumor-promoting, pro-inflammation and pro-fibrosis were not increased after MSCs injection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanlu Su
- School of Medicine, Nankai University, No. 94 Weijin Road, Tianjin 300071, China; Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, No. 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Yaqi Yin
- Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, No. 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Yu Cheng
- Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, No. 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Songyan Yu
- Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
| | - Ruofan Hu
- Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, No. 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Haixia Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, No. 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Jia Hu
- Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, No. 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Rui Ren
- Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, No. 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, No. 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Jian Zhao
- Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, No. 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Anning Wang
- Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, No. 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing 100853, China
| | - Zhaohui Lyu
- Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, No. 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing 100853, China.
| | - Yiming Mu
- School of Medicine, Nankai University, No. 94 Weijin Road, Tianjin 300071, China; Department of Endocrinology, Chinese People's Liberation Army General Hospital, No. 28 Fuxing Road, Beijing 100853, China.
| | - Jieqing Gao
- Department of Endocrinology, Beijing Rehabilitation Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.
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Engelmann J, Ragipoglu D, Ben-Batalla I, Loges S. The Role of TAM Receptors in Bone. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:233. [PMID: 38203403 PMCID: PMC10779100 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The TAM (TYRO3, MERTK, and AXL) family of receptor tyrosine kinases are pleiotropic regulators of adult tissue homeostasis maintaining organ integrity and self-renewal. Disruption of their homeostatic balance fosters pathological conditions like autoinflammatory or degenerative diseases including rheumatoid arthritis, lupus erythematodes, or liver fibrosis. Moreover, TAM receptors exhibit prominent cell-transforming properties, promoting tumor progression, metastasis, and therapy resistance in various cancer entities. Emerging evidence shows that TAM receptors are involved in bone homeostasis by regulating osteoblastic bone formation and osteoclastic bone resorption. Therefore, TAM receptors emerge as new key players of the regulatory cytokine network of osteoblasts and osteoclasts and represent accessible targets for pharmacologic therapy for a broad set of different bone diseases, including primary and metastatic bone tumors, rheumatoid arthritis, or osteoporosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janik Engelmann
- Department of Oncology, Hematology and Bone Marrow Transplantation with Section Pneumology, Hubertus Wald Comprehensive Cancer Center Hamburg, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany;
- Department of Tumor Biology, Center of Experimental Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
- DKFZ-Hector Cancer Institute at the University Medical Center Mannheim, 68167 Mannheim, Germany; (D.R.); (I.B.-B.)
- Division of Personalized Medical Oncology (A420), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Personalized Oncology, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Deniz Ragipoglu
- DKFZ-Hector Cancer Institute at the University Medical Center Mannheim, 68167 Mannheim, Germany; (D.R.); (I.B.-B.)
- Division of Personalized Medical Oncology (A420), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Personalized Oncology, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Isabel Ben-Batalla
- DKFZ-Hector Cancer Institute at the University Medical Center Mannheim, 68167 Mannheim, Germany; (D.R.); (I.B.-B.)
- Division of Personalized Medical Oncology (A420), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Personalized Oncology, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
| | - Sonja Loges
- DKFZ-Hector Cancer Institute at the University Medical Center Mannheim, 68167 Mannheim, Germany; (D.R.); (I.B.-B.)
- Division of Personalized Medical Oncology (A420), German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Personalized Oncology, University Hospital Mannheim, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, 68167 Mannheim, Germany
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Zizzo G, Cohen PL. Editorial: The key role of Mer receptor tyrosine kinase: where inflammation ends and fibrosis begins. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1251577. [PMID: 37529052 PMCID: PMC10390068 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1251577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gaetano Zizzo
- Temple Autoimmunity Center, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Unit of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, Azienda Socio-Sanitaria Territoriale (ASST) Ovest Milanese, Milan, Italy
| | - Philip L. Cohen
- Temple Autoimmunity Center, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
- Section of Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
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Di YX, Bao YJ, Zhu ZQ, Sun SL, Tian FX, Wang FR, Yu G, Zhang MF, Han J, Zhou LL. Tomentosin suppressed M1 polarization via increasing MERTK activation mediated by regulation of GAS6. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2023; 314:116429. [PMID: 37011736 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2023.116429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Xanthium sibiricum Patrin ex Widder (X. sibiricum) are widely used traditional herbal medicines for arthritis treatment in China. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is characterized by progressive destructions of joints, which is accompanied by chronic, progressive inflammatory disorder. According to our previous research, tomentosin was isolated from X. sibiricum and revealed anti-inflammatory activity. However, the potential therapeutic effect of tomentosin on RA and the anti-inflammatory mechanism of tomentosin remain to be clarified. The present study lays theoretical support for X. sibiricum in RA treatment, also provides reference for further development of X. sibiricum in clinic. AIM OF THE STUDY To investigate the effect of tomentosin in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mice and reveal its underlying mechanism. MATERIALS AND METHODS In vivo, tomentosin (10, 20 and 40 mg/kg) was given to CIA mice for seven consecutive days, to evaluate its therapeutic effect and anti-inflammatory activity. In vitro, THP-1-derived macrophages were used to verify the effect of tomentosin on inflammation. Then, molecular docking and experiments in vitro was conducted to predict and explore the mechanism of tomentosin inhibiting inflammation. RESULTS Tomentosin attenuated the severity of arthritis in CIA mice, which was evidenced by the swelling of the hind paws, arthritis scores, and pathological changes. Particularly, tomentosin effectively reduced the ratio of M1 macrophage and TNF-α levels in vitro and vivo. Then, molecular docking and experiments in vitro was carried out, indicating that tomentosin inhibited M1 polarization and TNF-α levels accompanied by the increase of MERTK and up-regulated GAS6 levels. Moreover, it has been proved that GAS6 was necessary for MERTK activation and tomentosin could up-regulate GAS6 levels effectively in transwell system. Further mechanistic studies revealed that tomentosin suppressed M1 polarization via increasing MERTK activation mediated by regulation of GAS6 in transwell system. CONCLUSION Tomentosin relieved the severity of CIA mice by inhibiting M1 polarization. Furthermore, tomentosin suppressed M1 polarization via increasing MERTK activation mediated by regulation of GAS6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Xi Di
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, NO.138 Xianlin Road, 210023, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, PR China.
| | - Yu-Jie Bao
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, NO.138 Xianlin Road, 210023, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, PR China.
| | - Zhi-Qi Zhu
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, NO.138 Xianlin Road, 210023, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, PR China.
| | - Shan-Liang Sun
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, NO.138 Xianlin Road, 210023, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, PR China.
| | - Feng-Xiang Tian
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, NO.138 Xianlin Road, 210023, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, PR China.
| | - Fu-Rong Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, NO.138 Xianlin Road, 210023, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, PR China.
| | - Ge Yu
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, NO.138 Xianlin Road, 210023, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, PR China.
| | - Ming-Fei Zhang
- Department of Pharmacy, Affiliated Hospital of Yangzhou University, Yangzhou University, 45 Taizhou Road, 225003, Yangzhou, PR China.
| | - Jing Han
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, NO.138 Xianlin Road, 210023, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, PR China.
| | - Ling-Ling Zhou
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, NO.138 Xianlin Road, 210023, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, PR China.
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Huang H, Jiang J, Chen R, Lin Y, Chen H, Ling Q. The role of macrophage TAM receptor family in the acute-to-chronic progression of liver disease: From friend to foe? Liver Int 2022; 42:2620-2631. [PMID: 35900248 DOI: 10.1111/liv.15380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Hepatic macrophages, the key cellular components of the liver, emerge as essential players in liver inflammation, tissue repair and subsequent fibrosis, as well as tumorigenesis. Recently, the TAM receptor tyrosine kinase family, consisting of Tyro3, Axl and MerTK, was found to be a pivotal modulator of macrophages. Activation of macrophage TAM receptor signalling promotes the efferocytosis of apoptotic cells and skews the polarization of macrophages. After briefly reviewing the mechanisms of TAM receptor signalling in macrophage polarization, we focus on their role in liver diseases from acute injury to chronic inflammation, fibrosis and then to tumorigenesis. Notably, macrophage TAM receptor signalling seems to be a two-edged sword for liver diseases. On one hand, the activation of TAM receptor signalling inhibits inflammation and facilitates tissue repair during acute liver injury. On the other hand, continuous activation of the signalling contributes to the process of chronic inflammation into fibrosis and tumorigenesis by evoking hepatic stellate cells and inhibiting anti-tumour immunity. Therefore, targeting macrophage TAM receptors and clarifying its downstream pathways will be exciting prospects for the precaution and treatment of liver diseases, particularly at different stages or statuses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haitao Huang
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Jingyu Jiang
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ruihan Chen
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yimou Lin
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hui Chen
- NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China
| | - Qi Ling
- Department of Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Combined Multi-Organ Transplantation, Hangzhou, China.,Alibaba-Zhejiang University Joint Research Center of Future Digital Healthcare, Hangzhou, China
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Van Avondt K, Strecker J, Tulotta C, Minnerup J, Schulz C, Soehnlein O. Neutrophils in aging and aging‐related pathologies. Immunol Rev 2022; 314:357-375. [PMID: 36315403 DOI: 10.1111/imr.13153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Over the past millennia, life expectancy has drastically increased. While a mere 25 years during Bronze and Iron ages, life expectancy in many European countries and in Japan is currently above 80 years. Such an increase in life expectancy is a result of improved diet, life style, and medical care. Yet, increased life span and aging also represent the most important non-modifiable risk factors for several pathologies including cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. In recent years, neutrophils have been implicated in all of these pathologies. Hence, this review provides an overview of how aging impacts neutrophil production and function and conversely how neutrophils drive aging-associated pathologies. Finally, we provide a perspective on how processes of neutrophil-driven pathologies in the context of aging can be targeted therapeutically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristof Van Avondt
- Institute of Experimental Pathology (ExPat), Centre of Molecular Biology of Inflammation (ZMBE) University of Münster Münster Germany
| | - Jan‐Kolja Strecker
- Department of Neurology with Institute of Translational Neurology University Hospital Münster Münster Germany
| | - Claudia Tulotta
- Institute of Experimental Pathology (ExPat), Centre of Molecular Biology of Inflammation (ZMBE) University of Münster Münster Germany
| | - Jens Minnerup
- Department of Neurology with Institute of Translational Neurology University Hospital Münster Münster Germany
| | - Christian Schulz
- Department of Medicine I University Hospital, Ludwig Maximilian University Munich Germany
- DZHK (German Centre for Cardiovascular Research), partner site Munich Heart Alliance Munich Germany
| | - Oliver Soehnlein
- Institute of Experimental Pathology (ExPat), Centre of Molecular Biology of Inflammation (ZMBE) University of Münster Münster Germany
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology (FyFa) Karolinska Institute Stockholm Sweden
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Pipitone RM, Calvaruso V, Di Marco L, Di Salvo F, Gaggianesi M, Lupo G, Zito R, La Mantia C, Ramazzotti M, Petta S, Di Marco V, Craxì A, Grimaudo S. Mer Tyrosine Kinase (MERTK) modulates liver fibrosis progression and hepatocellular carcinoma development. Front Immunol 2022; 13:926236. [PMID: 36003399 PMCID: PMC9394453 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.926236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BackgroundMerTK is a tyrosine kinase receptor that belongs to the TAM (Tyro3/Axl/Mer) receptor family. It is involved in different processes including cellular proliferation/survival, cellular adhesion/migration, and release of the inflammatory/anti-inflammatory cytokines. Although it is reported that MERTK polymorphisms affect the severity of viral and metabolic liver diseases, being able to influence fibrosis progression and hepatocellular carcinoma development, the mechanisms remain unknown. Methods: using a microarray approach, we evaluated the liver expression of genes involved in fibrogenesis and hepatocarcinogenesis in patient with chronic hepatitis C (CHC), stratified for MERTK genotype and MERTK expression. Results: we found that the rs 4374383 AA homozygosity is associated with lower MERTK expression in CHC patients and that, depending on MERTK genotype, Matrix Metallopeptidase 9 (MMP9), Matrix Metallopeptidase 7 (MMP7), Secreted Frizzled Related Protein 1 (SFRP1) and WNT gene family 11(WNT11) show differential expression in patients with CHC with or without neoplastic progression. Conclusions: our results confirm that MERTK represents a genetic biomarker for progression of liver disease and are suggestive of translational relevance for the study of downstream pathways involved in fibrogenesis and hepatocarcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosaria Maria Pipitone
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
- *Correspondence: Rosaria Maria Pipitone, ; Stefania Grimaudo,
| | - Vincenza Calvaruso
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Lorenza Di Marco
- Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Medical Specialties, University of Modena e Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Francesca Di Salvo
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Forest Sciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Miriam Gaggianesi
- Department of Surgical Oncological and Stomatological Sciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Giulia Lupo
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Rossella Zito
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Claudia La Mantia
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Matteo Ramazzotti
- Department of Biochemical, Experimental and Clinical Sciences, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Salvatore Petta
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Vito Di Marco
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Antonio Craxì
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Stefania Grimaudo
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
- *Correspondence: Rosaria Maria Pipitone, ; Stefania Grimaudo,
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Ye Z, Wei J, Zhan C, Hou J. Role of Transforming Growth Factor Beta in Peripheral Nerve Regeneration: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:917587. [PMID: 35769702 PMCID: PMC9234557 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.917587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injury (PNI) is one of the most common concerns in trauma patients. Despite significant advances in repair surgeries, the outcome can still be unsatisfactory, resulting in morbidities such as loss of sensory or motor function and reduced quality of life. This highlights the need for more supportive strategies for nerve regrowth and adequate recovery. Multifunctional cytokine transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) is essential for the development of the nervous system and is known for its neuroprotective functions. Accumulating evidence indicates its involvement in multiple cellular and molecular responses that are critical to peripheral nerve repair. Following PNI, TGF-β is released at the site of injury where it can initiate a series of phenotypic changes in Schwann cells (SCs), modulate immune cells, activate neuronal intrinsic growth capacity, and regulate blood nerve barrier (BNB) permeability, thus enhancing the regeneration of the nerves. Notably, TGF-β has already been applied experimentally in the treatment of PNI. These treatments with encouraging outcomes further demonstrate its regeneration-promoting capacity. Herein, we review the possible roles of TGF-β in peripheral nerve regeneration and discuss the underlying mechanisms, thus providing new cues for better treatment of PNI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqian Ye
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Stomatology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junbin Wei
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- Department of Stomatology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chaoning Zhan
- Department of Stomatology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jin Hou
- Department of Stomatology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Jin Hou,
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Liu J, Zhang Z, Yang Y, Di T, Wu Y, Bian T. NCOA4-Mediated Ferroptosis in Bronchial Epithelial Cells Promotes Macrophage M2 Polarization in COPD Emphysema. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 2022; 17:667-681. [PMID: 35386390 PMCID: PMC8978690 DOI: 10.2147/copd.s354896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Macrophage polarization plays an important role in the pathogenesis of COPD emphysema. Changes in macrophage polarization in COPD remain unclear, while polarization and ferroptosis are essential factors in its pathogenesis. Therefore, this study investigated the relationship between macrophage polarization and ferroptosis in COPD emphysema. Methods We measured macrophage polarization and the levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in the lung tissues of COPD patients and cigarette smoke (CS)-exposed mice. Flow cytometry was used to determine macrophage (THP-M cell) polarization changes. Ferroptosis was examined by FerroOrange, Perls' DAB, C11-BODIPY and 4-HNE staining. Nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4) was measured in the lung tissues of COPD patients and CS-exposed mice by western blotting. A cell study was performed to confirm the regulatory effect of NCOA4 on macrophage polarization. Results Increased M2 macrophages and MMP9 and MMP12 levels were observed in COPD patients, CS-exposed mice and THP-M cells cocultured with CS extract (CSE)-treated human bronchial epithelial (HBE) cells. Increased NCOA4 levels and ferroptosis were confirmed in COPD. Treatment with NCOA4 siRNA and the ferroptosis inhibitor ferrostatin-1 revealed an association between ferroptosis and M2 macrophages. These findings support a role for NCOA4, which induces an increase in M2 macrophages, in the pathogenesis of COPD emphysema. Conclusion In our study, CS led to the dominance of the M2 phenotype in COPD. We identified NCOA4 as a regulator of M2 macrophages and emphysema by mediating ferroptosis, which offers a new direction for research into COPD diagnostics and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaxin Liu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Wuxi People’s Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zixiao Zhang
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Wuxi People’s Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yue Yang
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Wuxi People’s Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tingting Di
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, First People’s Hospital of Nantong, Nantong, Jiangsu, 226006, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yan Wu
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Wuxi People’s Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214023, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tao Bian
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Wuxi People’s Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, 214023, People’s Republic of China
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11
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Pastore M, Caligiuri A, Raggi C, Navari N, Piombanti B, Di Maira G, Rovida E, Piccinni MP, Lombardelli L, Logiodice F, Rombouts K, Petta S, Marra F. Macrophage MerTK promotes profibrogenic cross-talk with hepatic stellate cells via soluble mediators. JHEP Rep 2022; 4:100444. [PMID: 35252828 PMCID: PMC8891698 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhepr.2022.100444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 12/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background & Aims Activation of Kupffer cells and recruitment of monocytes are key events in fibrogenesis. These cells release soluble mediators which induce the activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), the main fibrogenic cell type within the liver. Mer tyrosine kinase (MerTK) signaling regulates multiple processes in macrophages and has been implicated in the pathogenesis of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis-related fibrosis. In this study, we explored if MerTK activation in macrophages influences the profibrogenic phenotype of HSCs. Methods Macrophages were derived from THP-1 cells or differentiated from peripheral blood monocytes towards MerTK+/CD206+/CD163+/CD209- macrophages. The role of MerTK was assessed by pharmacologic and genetic inhibition. HSC migration was determined in Boyden chambers, viability was measured by the MTT assay, and proliferation was evaluated by the BrdU incorporation assay. Results Gas-6 induced MerTK phosphorylation and Akt activation in macrophages, and these effects were inhibited by UNC569. During polarization, MerTK+/CD206+/CD163+/CD209- macrophages exhibited activation of STAT3, ERK1/2, p38 and increased expression of VEGF-A. Activation of MerTK in THP-1 macrophages induced a secretome which promoted a significant increase in migration, proliferation, viability and expression of profibrogenic factors in HSCs. Similarly, conditioned medium from MerTK+ macrophages induced a significant increase in cell migration, proliferation, STAT3 and p38 phosphorylation and upregulation of IL-8 expression in HSCs. Moreover, conditioned medium from Gas-6-stimulated Kupffer cells induced a significant increase in HSC proliferation. These effects were specifically related to MerTK expression and activity in macrophages, as indicated by pharmacologic inhibition and knockdown experiments. Conclusions MerTK activation in macrophages modifies the secretome to promote profibrogenic features in HSCs, implicating this receptor in the pathogenesis of hepatic fibrosis. Lay summary Fibrosis represents the process of scarring occurring in patients with chronic liver diseases. This process depends on production of scar tissue components by a specific cell type, named hepatic stellate cells, and is regulated by interaction with other cells. Herein, we show that activation of MerTK, a receptor present in a population of macrophages, causes the production of factors that act on hepatic stellate cells, increasing their ability to produce scar tissue. MerTK, a member of the TAM family of proteins, is highly expressed in MerTK+/CD206+/CD163+/CD209- macrophages. In these macrophages, activation of MerTK induces phosphorylation of Akt, STAT3, ERK1/2, p38 and increased expression of VEGF-A. MerTK activation in macrophages modulates the secretome to promote the profibrogenic phenotype of human HSCs. Profibrogenic effects of macrophages expressing high levels of MerTK were blocked by knockdown or inhibition of MerTK.
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12
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Singhal A, Kumar S. Neutrophil and remnant clearance in immunity and inflammation. Immunology 2021; 165:22-43. [PMID: 34704249 DOI: 10.1111/imm.13423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Revised: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil-centred inflammation and flawed clearance of neutrophils cause and exuberate multiple pathological conditions. These most abundant leukocytes exhibit very high daily turnover in steady-state and stress conditions. Various armours including oxidative burst, NETs and proteases function against pathogens, but also dispose neutrophils to spawn pro-inflammatory responses. Neutrophils undergo death through different pathways upon ageing, infection, executing the intruder's elimination. These include non-lytic apoptosis and other lytic deaths including NETosis, necroptosis and pyroptosis with distinct disintegration of the cellular membrane. This causes release and presence of different intracellular cytotoxic, and tissue-damaging content as cell remnants in the extracellular environment. The apoptotic cells and apoptotic bodies get cleared with non-inflammatory outcomes, while lytic deaths associated remnants including histones and cell-free DNA cause pro-inflammatory responses. Indeed, the enhanced frequencies of neutrophil-associated proteases, cell-free DNA and autoantibodies in diverse pathologies including sepsis, asthma, lupus and rheumatoid arthritis, imply disturbed neutrophil resolution programmes in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Thus, the clearance mechanisms of neutrophils and associated remnants are vital for therapeutics. Though studies focused on clearance mechanisms of senescent or apoptotic neutrophils so far generated a good understanding of the same, clearance of neutrophils undergoing distinct lytic deaths, including NETs, are being the subjects of intense investigations. Here, in this review, we are providing the current updates in the clearance mechanisms of apoptotic neutrophils and focusing on not so well-defined recognition, uptake and degradation of neutrophils undergoing lytic death and associated remnants that may provide new therapeutic approaches in inflammation and autoimmunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apurwa Singhal
- Pharmacology Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Sachin Kumar
- Pharmacology Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Postal Staff College Area, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
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13
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Vago JP, Amaral FA, van de Loo FAJ. Resolving inflammation by TAM receptor activation. Pharmacol Ther 2021; 227:107893. [PMID: 33992683 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2021.107893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The control of inflammation is strictly regulated to ensure the adequate intensity and duration of an inflammatory response, enabling the removal of the trigger factors and the restoration of the integrity of the tissues and their functions. This process is coordinated by anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving mediators that regulate the cellular and molecular events necessary to restore homeostasis, and defects in this control are associated with the development of chronic and autoimmune diseases. The TAM family of receptor tyrosine kinases-Tyro3, Axl, and MerTK-plays an essential role in efferocytosis, a key process for the resolution of inflammation. However, new studies have demonstrated that TAM receptor activation not only reduces the synthesis of pro-inflammatory mediators by different cell types in response to some stimuli but also stimulates the production of anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving molecules that control the inflammation. This review provides a comprehensive view of TAM receptor family members as important players in controlling inflammatory responses through anti-inflammatory and pro-resolving actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana P Vago
- Experimental Rheumatology, Department of Rheumatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Flávio A Amaral
- Experimental Rheumatology, Department of Rheumatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Fons A J van de Loo
- Experimental Rheumatology, Department of Rheumatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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14
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Sobrino A, Walker ME, Colas RA, Dalli J. Protective activities of distinct omega-3 enriched oils are linked to their ability to upregulate specialized pro-resolving mediators. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0242543. [PMID: 33326419 PMCID: PMC7743945 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical studies using a range of omega-3 supplements have yielded conflicting results on their efficacy to control inflammation. Omega-3 fatty acids are substrate for the formation of potent immune-protective mediators, termed as specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPM). Herein, we investigated whether observed differences in the potencies of distinct omega-3 supplements were linked with their ability to upregulate SPM formation. Using lipid mediator profiling we found that four commercially available supplements conferred a unique SPM signature profile to human macrophages, with the overall increases in SPM concentrations being different between the four supplements. These increases in SPM concentrations were linked with an upregulation of macrophage phagocytosis and a decreased uptake of oxidized low-density lipoproteins. Pharmacological inhibition of two key SPM biosynthetic enzymes 5-Lipoxygenase or 15-Lipoxygenase reversed the macrophage-directed actions of each of the omega-3 supplements. Furthermore, administration of the two supplements that most potently upregulated macrophage SPM formation and reprogrammed their responses in vitro, to APOE-/- mice fed a western diet, increased plasma SPM concentrations and reduced vascular inflammation. Together these findings support the utility of SPM as potential prognostic markers in determining the utility of a given supplement to regulate macrophage responses and inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agua Sobrino
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Mary E. Walker
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Romain A. Colas
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jesmond Dalli
- William Harvey Research Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
- Centre for Inflammation and Therapeutic Innovation, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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15
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Gas6/Axl Signaling Pathway in the Tumor Immune Microenvironment. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12071850. [PMID: 32660000 PMCID: PMC7408754 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12071850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 07/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinases have been shown to dysregulate a number of pathways associated with tumor development, progression, and metastasis. Axl is a receptor tyrosine kinase expressed in many cancer types and has been associated with therapy resistance and poor clinical prognosis and outcomes. In addition, Axl and its ligand growth arrest specific 6 (Gas6) protein are expressed by a number of host cells. The Gas6/Axl signaling pathway has been implicated in the promotion of tumor cell proliferation, survival, migration, invasion, angiogenesis, and immune evasion. As a result, Axl is an attractive, novel therapeutic target to impair multiple stages of tumor progression from both neoplastic and host cell axes. This review focuses on the role of the Gas6/Axl signaling pathway in promoting the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, as immune evasion is considered one of the hallmarks of cancer. The review discusses the structure and activation of the Gas6/Axl signaling pathway, GAS6 and AXL expression patterns in the tumor microenvironment, mechanisms of Axl-mediated tumor immune response, and the role of Gas6/Axl signaling in immune cell recruitment.
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16
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Arienti S, Barth ND, Dorward DA, Rossi AG, Dransfield I. Regulation of Apoptotic Cell Clearance During Resolution of Inflammation. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:891. [PMID: 31456686 PMCID: PMC6701246 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Programmed cell death (apoptosis) has an important role in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis as well as the progression and ultimate resolution of inflammation. During apoptosis, the cell undergoes morphological and biochemical changes [e.g., phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) exposure, caspase activation, changes in mitochondrial membrane potential and DNA cleavage] that act to shut down cellular function and mark the cell for phagocytic clearance. Tissue phagocytes bind and internalize apoptotic cells, bodies, and vesicles, providing a mechanism for the safe disposal of apoptotic material. Phagocytic removal of apoptotic cells before they undergo secondary necrosis reduces the potential for bystander damage to adjacent tissue and importantly initiates signaling pathways within the phagocytic cell that act to dampen inflammation. In a pathological context, excessive apoptosis or failure to clear apoptotic material results in secondary necrosis with the release of pro-inflammatory intracellular contents. In this review, we consider some of the mechanisms by which phagocytosis of apoptotic cells can be controlled. We suggest that matching apoptotic cell load with the capacity for apoptotic cell clearance within tissues may be important for therapeutic strategies that target the apoptotic process for treatment of inflammatory disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Arienti
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Nicole D Barth
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David A Dorward
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Adriano G Rossi
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Ian Dransfield
- Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen's Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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17
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Myers KV, Amend SR, Pienta KJ. Targeting Tyro3, Axl and MerTK (TAM receptors): implications for macrophages in the tumor microenvironment. Mol Cancer 2019; 18:94. [PMID: 31088471 PMCID: PMC6515593 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-019-1022-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 231] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Tumor-associated macrophages are an abundant cell type in the tumor microenvironment. These macrophages serve as a promising target for treatment of cancer due to their roles in promoting cancer progression and simultaneous immunosuppression. The TAM receptors (Tyro3, Axl and MerTK) are promising therapeutic targets on tumor-associated macrophages. The TAM receptors are a family of receptor tyrosine kinases with shared ligands Gas6 and Protein S that skew macrophage polarization towards a pro-tumor M2-like phenotype. In macrophages, the TAM receptors also promote apoptotic cell clearance, a tumor-promoting process called efferocytosis. The TAM receptors bind the "eat-me" signal phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cell membranes using Gas6 and Protein S as bridging ligands. Post-efferocytosis, macrophages are further polarized to a pro-tumor M2-like phenotype and secrete increased levels of immunosuppressive cytokines. Since M2 polarization and efferocytosis are tumor-promoting processes, the TAM receptors on macrophages serve as exciting targets for cancer therapy. Current TAM receptor-directed therapies in preclinical development and clinical trials may have anti-cancer effects though impacting macrophage phenotype and function in addition to the cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla V. Myers
- 0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA ,0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute, Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA
| | - Sarah R. Amend
- 0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute, Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA
| | - Kenneth J. Pienta
- 0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA ,0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute, Department of Urology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA ,0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35Department of Oncology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD USA ,0000 0001 2171 9311grid.21107.35Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD USA
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