Selective Activation of Cannabinoid Receptor 2 Attenuates Myocardial Infarction via Suppressing NLRP3 Inflammasome

Re-evaluation of the cardioprotective effects of cannabinoids against ischemia-reperfusion injury according to the IMproving Preclinical Assessment of Cardioprotective Therapies (IMPACT) criteria

Ischemic heart disease, associated with high morbidity and mortality, represents a major challenge for the development of drug-based strategies to improve its prognosis. Results of pre-clinical studies suggest that agonists of cannabinoid CB2 receptors and multitarget cannabidiol might be potential cardioprotective strategies against ischemia-reperfusion injury. The aim of our study was to re-evaluate the cardioprotective effects of cannabinoids against ischemia-reperfusion injury according to the IMproving Preclinical Assessment of Cardioprotective Therapies (IMPACT) criteria published recently by the European Union (EU) CARDIOPROTECTION COST ACTION. To meet the minimum criteria of those guidelines, experiments should be performed (i) on healthy small animals subjected to ischemia with reperfusion lasting for at least 2 hours and (ii) confirmed in small animals with comorbidities and co-medications and (iii) in large animals. Our analysis revealed that the publications regarding cardioprotective effects of CB2 receptor agonists and cannabidiol did not meet all three strict steps of IMPACT. Thus, additional experiments are needed to confirm the cardioprotective activities of (endo)cannabinoids mainly on small animals with comorbidities and on large animals. Moreover, our publication underlines the significance of the IMPACT criteria for a proper planning of preclinical experiments regarding cardiac ischemia-reperfusion injury.

Research progress on the cannabinoid type-2 receptor and Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is featured by movement impairments, including tremors, bradykinesia, muscle stiffness, and imbalance. PD is also associated with many non-motor symptoms, such as cognitive impairments, dementia, and mental disorders. Previous studies identify the associations between PD progression and factors such as α-synuclein aggregation, mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation, and cell death. The cannabinoid type-2 receptor (CB2 receptor) is a transmembrane G-protein-coupled receptor and has been extensively studied as part of the endocannabinoid system. CB2 receptor is recently emerged as a promising target for anti-inflammatory treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. It is reported to modulate mitochondrial function, oxidative stress, iron transport, and neuroinflammation that contribute to neuronal cell death. Additionally, CB2 receptor possesses the potential to provide feedback on electrophysiological processes, offering new possibilities for PD treatment. This review summarized the mechanisms underlying PD pathogenesis. We also discussed the potential regulatory role played by CB2 receptor in PD.

Role of Cannabinoid Signaling in Cardiovascular Function and Ischemic Injury

Cardiovascular disease represents a leading cause of death, morbidity, and societal economic burden. The prevalence of cannabis use has significantly increased due to legalization and an increased societal acceptance of cannabis. Therefore, it is critically important that we gain a greater understanding of the effects and risks of cannabinoid use on cardiovascular diseases as well as the potential for cannabinoid-directed drugs to be used as therapeutics for the treatment of cardiovascular disease. This review summarizes our current understanding of the role of cannabinoid receptors in the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis and myocardial ischemia and explores their use as therapeutic targets in the treatment of ischemic heart disease. Endocannabinoids are elevated in patients with atherosclerosis, and activation of cannabinoid type 1 receptors (CB1Rs) generally leads to an enhancement of plaque formation and atherosclerosis. In contrast, selective activation of cannabinoid type 2 receptors (CB2Rs) appears to exert protective effects against atherosclerosis. Endocannabinoid signaling is also activated by myocardial ischemia. CB2R signaling appears to protect the heart from ischemic injury, whereas the role of CB1R in ischemic injury is less clear. This narrative review serves to summarize current research on the role of cannabinoid signaling in cardiovascular function with the goal of identifying critical knowledge gaps and future studies to address those gaps in a way that facilitates the development of new treatments and better cardiovascular health. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction, are a leading cause of death. Cannabinoid drugs have well known acute effects on cardiovascular function, including tachycardia and orthostatic hypotension. The recent legalization of marijuana and cannabinoids for both medical and recreational use has dramatically increased their prevalence of use. This narrative review on the role of cannabinoid signaling in cardiovascular disease contributes to a better understanding of this topic by integrating current knowledge and identifying critical gaps.

R-(+)-WIN55212-2 protects pericytes from ischemic damage and restores retinal microcirculatory patency after ischemia/reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Cannabinoids are vasoactive substances that act as key regulators of arterial tone in the blood vessels supplying peripheral tissues and the central nervous system. This study aimed to investigate the potential of R-(+)-WIN55212-2 (WIN), a cannabinoid receptor 1 agonist (CB1), as a treatment for retinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Male Wistar rats were subjected to retinal I/R injury by increasing intraocular pressure in the anterior chamber. The rats were randomly divided into four groups: normal control, I/R, vehicle (pre-treated with dimethyl sulfoxide [DMSO] via intraperitoneal injection), and experimental (pre-treated with WIN at a dose of 1 ml/kg via intraperitoneal injection). The rats were sacrificed at different time points of reperfusion (1 hour, 3 hours, 6 hours, and 1 day) after inducing retinal I/R injury, and their retinas were collected for analysis. Oxygen-glucose deprived/reperfusion (OGD/R) was performed by initially perfusing the retinas with oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF), then switching to an OGD solution to simulate ischemia, followed by another perfusion with ACSF. Pericyte contraction and the "no-reflow" phenomenon were observed using infrared differential interference contrast (IR-DIC) microscopy and immunohistochemistry. Western blot, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and nitric oxide (NO) detection were used to explore the potential mechanism.

KEY RESULTS

In both the OGD/R and I/R models, retinal pericytes exhibited persistent contraction even after reperfusion. The ability of WIN to regulate the tone of retinal pericytes and capillaries was specifically blocked by the BKCa inhibitor iberiotoxin (100 nM). WIN demonstrated a protective effect against retinal I/R injury by preserving blood flow in vessels containing pericytes. Pretreatment with WIN alleviated the persistent contraction and apoptosis of retinal pericytes in I/R-induced rats, accompanied by a reduction in intracellular calcium ion (Ca2+) concentration. The expression of CB1 decreased in a time-dependent manner in the I/R group. After I/R injury, endothelium-derived nitric oxide (eNOS) levels were reduced at all time points, which was successfully reversed by WIN therapy except for the 1 day group. Additionally, the downregulation of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) and BKCa expression at 3 hours, 6 hours, and 1 day after I/R injury was restored by pretreatment of WIN.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

WIN exerted its protective effects on retinal I/R injury by inhibiting the contraction and apoptosis of pericytes through the CB1-eNOS-cGMP-BKCa signaling pathway, thus ameliorated the occlusion of retinal capillaries.

Regulation of cell proliferation and transdifferentiation compensates for ventilator-induced lung injury mediated by NLRP3 inflammasome activation

BACKGROUND

Mechanical ventilation is an important means of respiratory support and treatment for various diseases. However, its use can lead to serious complications, especially ventilator-induced lung injury (VILI). The mechanisms underlying this disease are complex, but activation of inflammatory signalling pathways results in activation of cytokines and inflammatory mediators, which play key roles in VILI. Recent studies have demonstrated that nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation mediates VILI and also accompanied by cell proliferation and transdifferentiation to compensate for alveolar membrane damage. Type I alveolar epithelial cells (AECs I), which are involved in the formation of the blood-air barrier, are vulnerable to damage but cannot proliferate by themselves; thus, replacing AECs I relies on type II alveolar epithelial cells (AECs II).

OBJECTIVE

The review aims to introduce the mechanisms of NLRP3 inflammasome activation and its inhibitors, as well as the mechanisms that regulate cell proliferation and transdifferentiation.

METHODS

A large number of relevant literature was searched, then the key content was summarized and figures were also made.

RESULTS

The mechanism of NLRP3 inflammasome activation has been further explored, including but not limited to pathogenic and aseptic inflammatory signals, such as, pathogenic molecular patterns and host-derived danger-associated molecular patterns activate toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor-kappaB pathway or reactive oxygen species, cyclic stretch, adenosine triphosphate induce K+ efflux through P2X7, Ca2+ inflow, mitochondrial damage, etc, eventually induce NIMA-related kinase 7/NLRP3 binding and NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Not only that, the review also described in detail the inhibitors of NLRP3 inflammasome. And the mechanisms regulating cell proliferation and transdifferentiation are complex and unclear, including the Wnt/β-catenin, Yap/Taz, BMP/Smad and Notch signalling pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

NLRP3 inflammasome activation mediated VILI, and VILI is alleviated after interfering with its activation, and inflammation and repair exist simultaneously in VILI. Clarifying these mechanisms is expected to provide theoretical guidance for alleviating VILI by inhibiting the inflammatory response and accelerating alveolar epithelial cell regeneration in the early stage.

The Use of CBD and Its Synthetic Analog HU308 in HIV-1-Infected Myeloid Cells

Currently, there is no cure for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. However, combined antiretroviral therapy (cART) aids in viral latency and prevents the progression of HIV-1 infection into acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). cART has extended many lives, but people living with HIV-1 (PLWH) face lifelong ailments such as HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) that range from asymptomatic HAND to HIV-1-associated dementia. HAND has been attributed to chronic inflammation and low-level infection within the central nervous system (CNS) caused by proinflammatory cytokines and viral products. These molecules are shuttled into the CNS within extracellular vesicles (EVs), lipid bound nanoparticles, and are released from cells as a form of intercellular communication. This study investigates the impact of cannabidiol (CBD), as a promising and potential therapeutic for HAND patients, and a similar synthetic molecule, HU308, on the EVs released from HIV-1-infected myeloid cells as well as HIV-1-infected 3D neurospheres. The data shows that both CBD and HU308 decrease non-coding and coding viral RNA (TAR and env) as well as proinflammatory cytokines as IL-1β and TNF-α mRNA. This decrease in viral RNA occurs in in vitro differentiated primary macrophages, in EVs released from HIV-1-infected cells monocytes, and infected neurospheres. Furthermore, a 3D neurosphere model shows an overall decrease in proinflammatory mRNA with HU308. Finally, using a humanized mouse model of HIV-1 infection, plasma viral RNA was shown to significantly decrease with HU308 alone and was most effective in combination with cART, even when compared to the typical cART treatment. Overall, CBD or HU308 may be a viable option to decrease EV release and associated cytokines which would dampen the virus spread and may be used in effective treatment of HAND in combination with cART.

Combination of Taurine and Black Pepper Extract as a Treatment for Cardiovascular and Coronary Artery Diseases

The shift in modern dietary regimens to "Western style" and sedentary lifestyles are believed to be partly responsible for the increase in the global burden of cardiovascular diseases. Natural products have been used throughout human history as treatments for a plethora of pathological conditions. Taurine and, more recently, black pepper have gained attention for their beneficial health effects while remaining non-toxic even when ingested in excess. Taurine, black pepper, and the major terpene constituents found in black pepper (i.e., β-caryophyllene; α-pinene; β-pinene; α-humulene; limonene; and sabinene) that are present in PhytoCann BP^® have been shown to have cardioprotective effects based on anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, anti-hypertensive and anti-atherosclerotic mechanisms. This comprehensive review of the literature focuses on determining whether the combination of taurine and black pepper extract is an effective natural treatment for reducing cardiovascular diseases risk factors (i.e., hypertension and hyperhomocysteinemia) and for driving anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and anti-atherosclerotic mechanisms to combat coronary artery disease, heart failure, myocardial infarction, and atherosclerotic disease.

The impact of cannabinoids on inflammasome signaling in HIV-1 infection

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is a chronic disease that afflicts over 38 million people worldwide without a known cure. The advent of effective antiretroviral therapies (ART) has significantly decreased the morbidity and mortality associated with HIV-1 infection in people living with HIV-1 (PWH), thanks to durable virologic suppression. Despite this, people with HIV-1 experience chronic inflammation associated with co-morbidities. While no single known mechanism accounts for chronic inflammation, there is significant evidence to support the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome as a key driver. Numerous studies have demonstrated therapeutic impact of cannabinoids, including exerting modulatory effects on the NLRP3 inflammasome. Given the high rates of cannabinoid use in PWH, it is of great interest to understand the intersecting biology of the role of cannabinoids in HIV-1-associated inflammasome signaling. Here we describe the literature of chronic inflammation in people with HIV, the therapeutic impact of cannabinoids in PWH, endocannabinoids in inflammation, and HIV-1-associated inflammation. We describe a key interaction between cannabinoids, the NLRP3 inflammasome, and HIV-1 viral infection, which supports further investigation of the critical role of cannabinoids in HIV-1 infection and inflammasome signaling.

CB2R activation ameliorates late adolescent chronic alcohol exposure-induced anxiety-like behaviors during withdrawal by preventing morphological changes and suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation in prefrontal cortex microglia in mice

BACKGROUND

Chronic alcohol exposure (CAE) during late adolescence increases the risk of anxiety development. Alcohol-induced prefrontal cortex (PFC) microglial activation, characterized by morphological changes and increased associations with neurons, plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of anxiety. Alcohol exposure increases NLRP3 inflammasome expression, increasing cytokine secretion by activated microglia. Cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2R), an essential receptor of the endocannabinoid system, regulates microglial activation and neuroinflammatory reactions. We aimed to investigate the role of CB2R activation in ameliorating late adolescent CAE-induced anxiety-like behaviors and microglial activation in C57BL/6J mice.

METHODS

Six-week-old C57BL/6J mice were acclimated for 7 days and then were administered alcohol by gavage (4 g/kg, 25 % w/v) for 28 days. The mice were intraperitoneally injected with the specific CB2R agonist AM1241 1 h before alcohol treatment. Anxiety-like behaviors during withdrawal were assessed by open field test and elevated plus maze test 24 h after the last alcohol administration. Microglial activation, microglia-neuron interactions, and CB2R and NLRP3 inflammasome-related molecule expression in the PFC were measured using immunofluorescence, immunohistochemical, qPCR, and Western blotting assays. Microglial morphology was evaluated by Sholl analysis and the cell body-to-total cell size index. Additionally, N9 microglia were activated by LPS in vitro, and the effects of AM1241 on NLRP3 and N9 microglial activation were investigated.

RESULTS

After CAE, mice exhibited severe anxiety-like behaviors during withdrawal. CAE induced obvious microglia-neuron associations, and increased expression of microglial activation markers, CB2R, and NLRP3 inflammasome-related molecules in the PFC. Microglia also showed marked filament retraction and reduction and cell body enlargement after CAE. AM1241 treatment ameliorated anxiety-like behaviors in CAE model mice, and it prevented microglial morphological changes, reduced microglial activation marker expression, and suppressed the microglial NLRP3 inflammasome activation and proinflammatory cytokine secretion induced by CAE. AM1241 suppressed the LPS-induced increase in NLRP3 inflammasome-related molecules, IL-1β release, and M1 phenotype markers (iNOS and CD86) in N9 cell, which was reversed by CB2R antagonist treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

CAE caused anxiety-like behaviors in late adolescent mice at least partly by inducing microglial activation and increasing microglia-neuron associations in the PFC. CB2R activation ameliorated these effects by preventing morphological changes and suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation in PFC microglia.

Inflammasomes as mediators of inflammation in HIV-1 infection

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection is a chronic disease without a known cure. The advent of effective antiretroviral therapy (ART) has enabled people with HIV (PWH) to have significantly prolonged life expectancies. As a result, morbidity and mortality associated with HIV-1 infection have declined considerably. However, these individuals experience chronic systemic inflammation whose multifaceted etiology is associated with other numerous comorbidities. Inflammasomes are vital mediators that contribute to inflammatory signaling in HIV-1 infection. Here, we provide an overview of the inflammatory pathway that underlies HIV-1 infection, explicitly highlighting the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome. We also delineate the current literature on inflammasomes and the therapeutic targeting strategies aimed at the NLRP3 inflammasome to moderate HIV-1 infection-associated inflammation. Here we describe the NLRP3 inflammasome as a key pathway in developing novel therapeutic targets to block HIV-1 replication and HIV-1-associated inflammatory signaling. Controlling the inflammatory pathways is critical in alleviating the morbidities and mortality associated with chronic HIV-1 infection in PWH.

Transcriptome-wide analysis reveals the molecular mechanisms of cannabinoid type II receptor agonists in cardiac injury induced by chronic psychological stress

Background: Growing evidence has supported that chronic psychological stress would cause heart damage, However the mechanisms involved are not clear and effective interventions are insufficient. Cannabinoid type 2 receptor (CB2R) can be a potential treatment for cardiac injury. This study is aimed to investigate the protective mechanism of CB2R agonist against chronic psychological stress-induced cardiac injury. Methods: A mouse chronic psychological stress model was constructed based on a chronic unpredictable stress pattern. Mice were performed a three-week psychological stress procedure, and cardiac tissues of them were collected for whole-transcriptome sequencing. Overlap analysis was performed on differentially expressed mRNAs (DE-mRNAs) and ER stress-related genes (ERSRGs), and bioinformatic methods were used to predict the ceRNA networks and conduct pathway analysis. The expressions of the DE-ERSRGs were validated by RT-qPCR. Results: In the comparison of DE mRNA in Case group, Control group and Treatment group, three groups of ceRNA networks and ceRNA (circ) networks were constructed. The DE-mRNAs were mainly enriched in chromatid-relevant terms and Hematopoietic cell lineage pathway. Additionally, 13 DE-ERSRGs were obtained by the overlap analysis, which were utilized to establish a ceRNA network with 15 nodes and 14 edges and a ceRNA (circ) network with 23 nodes and 28 edges. Furthermore, four DE-ERSRGs (Cdkn1a, Atf3, Fkbp5, Gabarapl1) in the networks were key, which were mainly enriched in response to extracellular stimulus, response to nutrient levels, cellular response to external stimulus, and FoxO signaling pathway. Finally, the RT-qPCR results showed almost consistent expression patterns of 13 DE-ERSRGs between the transcriptome and tissue samples. Conclusion: The findings of this study provide novel insights into the molecular mechanisms of chronic psychological stress-induced cardiac diseases and reveal novel targets for the cardioprotective effects of CB2R agonists.

Pyroptosis is a drug target for prevention of adverse cardiac remodeling: The crosstalk between pyroptosis, apoptosis, and autophagy

Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) is one of the main reasons of cardiovascular disease-related death. The introduction of percutaneous coronary intervention to clinical practice dramatically decreased the mortality rate in AMI. Adverse cardiac remodeling is a serious problem in cardiology. An increase in the effectiveness of AMI treatment and prevention of adverse cardiac remodeling is difficult to achieve without understanding the mechanisms of reperfusion cardiac injury and cardiac remodeling. Inhibition of pyroptosis prevents the development of postinfarction and pressure overload-induced cardiac remodeling, and mitigates cardiomyopathy induced by diabetes and metabolic syndrome. Therefore, it is reasonable to hypothesize that the pyroptosis inhibitors may find a role in clinical practice for treatment of AMI and prevention of cardiac remodeling, diabetes and metabolic syndrome-triggered cardiomyopathy. It was demonstrated that pyroptosis interacts closely with apoptosis and autophagy. Pyroptosis could be inhibited by nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor with a pyrin domain 3 inhibitors, caspase-1 inhibitors, microRNA, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin Ⅱ receptor blockers, and traditional Chinese herbal medicines.

Cannabinoid Type-2 Receptor Agonist, JWH133 May Be a Possible Candidate for Targeting Infection, Inflammation, and Immunity in COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by SARS-CoV-2, is a deadly disease affecting millions due to the non-availability of drugs and vaccines. The majority of COVID-19 drugs have been repurposed based on antiviral, immunomodulatory, and antibiotic potential. The pathogenesis and advanced complications with infection involve the immune-inflammatory cascade. Therefore, a therapeutic strategy could reduce infectivity, inflammation, and immune modulation. In recent years, modulating the endocannabinoid system, particularly activation of the cannabinoid type 2 (CB2) receptor is a promising therapeutic target for modulation of immune-inflammatory responses. JWH133, a selective, full functional agonist of the CB2 receptor, has been extensively studied for its potent anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and immunomodulatory properties. JWH133 modulates numerous signaling pathways and inhibits inflammatory mediators, including cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, prostanoids, and eicosanoids. In this study, we propose that JWH133 could be a promising candidate for targeting infection, immunity, and inflammation in COVID-19, due to its pharmacological and molecular mechanisms in numerous preclinical efficacy and safety studies, along with its immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, organoprotective, and antiviral properties. Thus, JWH133 should be investigated in preclinical and clinical studies for its potential as an agent or adjuvant with other agents for its effect on viremia, infectivity, immune modulation, resolution of inflammation, reduction in severity, and progression of complications in COVID-19. JWH133 is devoid of psychotropic effects due to CB2 receptor selectivity, has negligible toxicity, good bioavailability and druggable properties, including pharmacokinetic and physicochemical effects. We believe that JWH133 could be a promising drug and may inspire further studies for an evidence-based approach against COVID-19.

Pharmacological Properties, Therapeutic Potential and Molecular Mechanisms of JWH133, a CB2 Receptor-Selective Agonist

The endocannabinoid system has attracted attention as a pharmacological target for several pathological conditions. Cannabinoid (CB2)-selective agonists have been the focus of pharmacological studies because modulation of the CB2 receptor (CB2R) can be useful in the treatment of pain, inflammation, arthritis, addiction, and cancer among other possible therapeutic applications while circumventing CNS-related adverse effects. Increasing number of evidences from different independent preclinical studies have suggested new perspectives on the involvement of CB2R signaling in inflammation, infection and immunity, thus play important role in cancer, cardiovascular, renal, hepatic and metabolic diseases. JWH133 is a synthetic agonist with high CB2R selectivity and showed to exert CB2R mediated antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, nephroprotective, and immunomodulatory activities. Cumulative evidences suggest that JWH133 protects against hepatic injury, renal injury, cardiotoxicity, fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and cancer as well as against oxidative damage and inflammation, inhibits fibrosis and apoptosis, and acts as an immunosuppressant. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the polypharmacological properties and therapeutic potential of JWH133. This review also presents molecular mechanism and signaling pathways of JWH133 under various pathological conditions except neurological diseases. Based on the available data, this review proposes the possibilities of developing JWH133 as a promising therapeutic agent; however, further safety and toxicity studies in preclinical studies and clinical trials in humans are warranted.

Pharmacological potential of JWH133, a cannabinoid type 2 receptor agonist in neurodegenerative, neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric diseases

The pharmacological activation of cannabinoid type 2 receptors (CB2R) gained attention due to its ability to mitigate neuroinflammatory events without eliciting psychotropic actions, a limiting factor for the drugs targeting cannabinoid type 1 receptors (CB1R). Therefore, ligands activating CB2R are receiving enormous importance for therapeutic targeting in numerous neurological diseases including neurodegenerative, neuropsychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders as well as traumatic injuries and neuropathic pain where neuroinflammation is a common accompaniment. Since the characterization of CB2R, many CB2R selective synthetic ligands have been developed with high selectivity and functional activity. Among numerous ligands, JWH133 has been found one of the compounds with high selectivity for CB2R. JWH133 has been reported to exhibit numerous pharmacological activities including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, gastroprotective, nephroprotective, and immunomodulatory. Recent studies have shown that JWH133 possesses potent neuroprotective properties in several neurological disorders, including neuropathic pain, anxiety, epilepsy, depression, alcoholism, psychosis, stroke, and neurodegeneration. Additionally, JWH133 showed to protect neurons from oxidative damage and inflammation, promote neuronal survival and neurogenesis, and serve as an immunomodulatory agent. The present review comprehensively examined neuropharmacological activities of JWH133 in neurological disorders including neurodegenerative, neurodevelopmental and neuropsychiatric using synoptic tables and elucidated pharmacological mechanisms based on reported observations. Considering the cumulative data, JWH133 appears to be a promising CB2R agonist molecule for further evaluation and it can be a prototype agent in drug discovery and development for a unique class of agents in neurotherapeutics. Further, regulatory toxicology and pharmacokinetic studies are required to determine safety and proceed for clinical evaluation.

The Role of Pyroptosis in Ischemic and Reperfusion Injury of the Heart

While ischemia itself can kill heart muscle, much of the infarction after a transient period of coronary artery occlusion has been found to result from injury during reperfusion. Here we review the role of inflammation and possible pyroptosis in myocardial reperfusion injury. Current evidence suggests pyroptosis's contribution to infarction may be considerable. Pyroptosis occurs when inflammasomes activate caspases that in turn cleave off an N-terminal fragment of gasdermin D. This active fragment makes large pores in the cell membrane thus killing the cell. Inhibition of inflammation enhances cardiac tolerance to ischemia and reperfusion injury. Stimulation of the purinergic P2X7 receptor and the β-adrenergic receptor and activation of nuclear factor κ-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) by toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists are all known to contribute to ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) cardiac injury through inflammation, potentially by pyroptosis. In contrast, stimulation of the cannabinoid CB2 receptor reduces I/R cardiac injury and inhibits this pathway. MicroRNAs, Akt, the phosphate and tension homology deleted on chromosome 10 protein (PTEN), pyruvate dehydrogenase and sirtuin-1 reportedly modulate inflammation in cardiomyocytes during I/R. Cryopyrin and caspase-1/4 inhibitors are reported to increase cardiac tolerance to ischemic and reperfusion cardiac injury, presumably by suppressing inflammasome-dependent inflammation. The ambiguity surrounding the role of pyroptosis in reperfusion injury arises because caspase-1 also activates cytotoxic interleukins and proteolytically degrades a surprisingly large number of cytosolic enzymes in addition to activating gasdermin D.

Isofraxidin Alleviates Myocardial Infarction Through NLRP3 Inflammasome Inhibition

Isofraxidin is a well-known coumarin compound refined from traditional Chinese medicines. It has been previously demonstrated to play an anti-inflammatory role in various inflammatory conditions. However, the effect of isofraxidin on myocardial infarction (MI) remains uncovered. In this study, we aimed to investigate the effect of isofraxidin on MI. MI mice was created and triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) staining as well as echocardiographic evaluation were conducted to analyze the severity of MI. Oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) was used for the mimics of ischemic stress in murine cardiomyocytes, and Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), Annexin V, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release assays were conducted for cell viability. Western blot was used for the detection of NOD-like receptor family, pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3), and adapter protein apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC) in heart tissues and cardiomyocytes. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were applied for the detection of proinflammatory cytokines. We found that isofraxidin alleviated the severity of MI and produced a cardio-protective effect against OGD damage. Isofraxidin also decreased the overall and local inflammatory reaction in MI. Those effects were through the inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome. Taken together, we initially reported the cardio-protective and alleviative effect of isofraxidin on MI and uncovered its underlying mechanism related to the NLRP3 inflammasome inhibition.

Cannabinoids as Key Regulators of Inflammasome Signaling: A Current Perspective

Inflammasomes are cytoplasmic inflammatory signaling protein complexes that detect microbial materials, sterile inflammatory insults, and certain host-derived elements. Inflammasomes, once activated, promote caspase-1–mediated maturation and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, leading to pyroptosis. Current advances in inflammasome research support their involvement in the development of chronic inflammatory disorders in contrast to their role in regulating innate immunity. Cannabis (marijuana) is a natural product obtained from the Cannabis sativa plant, and pharmacologically active ingredients of the plant are referred to as cannabinoids. Cannabinoids and cannabis extracts have recently emerged as promising novel drugs for chronic medical conditions. Growing evidence indicates the potent anti-inflammatory potential of cannabinoids, especially Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and synthetic cannabinoids; however, the mechanisms remain unclear. Several attempts have been made to decipher the role of cannabinoids in modulating inflammasome signaling in the etiology of chronic inflammatory diseases. In this review, we discuss recently published evidence on the effect of cannabinoids on inflammasome signaling. We also discuss the contribution of various cannabinoids in human diseases concerning inflammasome regulation. Lastly, in the milieu of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, we confer available evidence linking inflammasome activation to the pathophysiology of COVID-19 suggesting overall, the importance of cannabinoids as possible drugs to target inflammasome activation in or to support the treatment of a variety of human disorders including COVID-19.

NLRP3 inflammasome in cardiovascular diseases: Pathophysiological and pharmacological implications

Growing evidence points out the importance of nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain leucine-rich repeat and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), including hypertension, myocardial infarct (MI), ischemia, cardiomyopathies (CMs), heart failure (HF), and atherosclerosis. In this regard, intensive research efforts both in humans and in animal models of CVDs are being focused on the characterization of the pathophysiological role of NLRP3 inflammasome signaling in CVDs. In addition, clinical and preclinical evidence is coming to light that the pharmacological blockade of NLRP3 pathways with drugs, including novel chemical entities as well as drugs currently employed in the clinical practice, biologics and phytochemicals, could represent a suitable therapeutic approach for prevention and management of CVDs. On these bases, the present review article provides a comprehensive overview of clinical and preclinical studies about the role of NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathophysiology of CVDs, including hypertension, MI, ischemic injury, CMs, HF and atherosclerosis. In addition, particular attention has been focused on current evidence on the effects of drugs, biologics, and phytochemicals, targeting different steps of inflammasome signaling, in CVDs.

NLRP3 Inflammasome Signaling as a Link Between HIV-1 Infection and Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease

36.9 million people worldwide are living with HIV-1. The disease remains incurable and HIV-infected patients have increased risk of atherosclerosis. Inflammation is a key driver of atherosclerosis, but no targeted molecular therapies have been developed to reduce cardiovascular risk in people with HIV-1 (PWH). While the mechanism is unknown, there are several important inflammatory signaling events that are implicated in the development of chronic inflammation in PWH and in the inflammatory changes that lead to atherosclerosis. Here we describe the pro-inflammatory state of HIV-1 infection that leads to increased risk of cardiovascular disease, the role of the NLR Family Pyrin Domain Containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in HIV-1 infection, the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in cardiovascular disease (CVD), and outline a model whereby HIV-1 infection can lead to atherosclerotic disease through NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Our discussion highlights the literature supporting HIV-1 infection as a stimulator of the NLRP3 inflammasome as a driver of atherosclerosis.