Total flavonoids from Tetrastigma hemsleyanum ameliorates inflammatory stress in concanavalin A-induced autoimmune hepatitis mice by regulating Treg/Th17 immune homeostasis

Yu-Ping-Feng-San alleviates inflammation in atopic dermatitis mice by TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Yu-Ping-Feng-San (YPF) is a traditional Chinese medicine formula that has therapeutic effects on allergic diseases such as allergic rhinitis and asthma. However, its potential efficacy and mechanism in the treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD) has not been extensively illustrated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy and possible mechanisms of YPF in AD pathogenesis.

METHODS

Network pharmacology and GEO data mining were adopted to firstly identify the potential mechanisms of YPF on AD. Then DNCB induced-AD murine model was established to test the efficacy of YPF and verify its effects on inflammatory cytokines and NF-κB pathway. In addition, molecular docking was performed to detect the binding affinity of YPF's active components with NF-κB pathway related molecules.

RESULTS

Network pharmacology and human data mining suggested that YPF may act on the NF-κB pathway in AD pathogenesis. With DNCB mice model, we found that YPF significantly improved AD symptoms, reduced SCORAD scores, and alleviated skin tissue inflammation in mice. At the same time, the expression of inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, sPLA2-IIA and IL-6, was down-regulated. Moreover, YPF suppressed TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway in situ in a dose-dependent manner. Molecular docking further confirmed that seven compounds in YPF had exceptional binding properties with TNF-α, IL-6 and TLR4.

CONCLUSION

YPF may help the recovery of AD by inhibiting the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway, which provides novel insights for the treatment of AD by YPF.

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum suppresses neuroinflammation in febrile seizures rats via regulating PKC-δ/caspase-1 signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg (T. hemsleyanum, Sanyeqing) has been used in the prevention and treatment of repetitive Febrile seizures (FS) over the centuries in China.

AIM OF THE STUDY

T. hemsleyanum exerts wide pharmacological action, which has been widely used for treating various diseases, including infantile febrile seizure. However, the systematic study on this herb's material basis and the functional mechanism is lacking. This study intended to systematically elucidate the mechanism of T. hemsleyanum against febrile seizures.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The efficacy of T. hemsleyanum was estimated by using a hot bath as a model of FS, the onset and duration of seizure, morphological structure changes of hippocampal neurons as well as magnetoencephalography were applied to evaluate the effects. Meanwhile, the bioactive components of T. hemsleyanum responsible for the therapeutic effect of T. hemsleyanum on FS were identified by UPLC-MS/MS. Then we systematically elucidated the mechanism of T. hemsleyanum based on metabonomics, transcriptomics, network pharmacological and experimental validation.

RESULTS

In a hyperthermia-induced FS model of rats, T. hemsleyanum significantly increased the seizure latency and decreased seizure duration, alleviating the abnormal delta and gamma band activity during epileptic discharge. Furthermore, ten chemical components of ethanol extracts from T. hemsleyanum were identified by UPLC-MS/MS, including quercetin, kaempferol, and procyanidin B1 and so on, which was consistent with the network pharmacology prediction. The serum metabolomics indicated that T. hemsleyanum mainly acts on inflammation regulation and neuroprotection by the glycerophospholipid metabolism pathway. Ninety-two potential targets of T. hemsleyanum on FS were identified by network pharmacology, and TNF, IL-6, and IL-1β were considered the pivotal targets. In the hippocampus transcriptomics, 17 KEGG pathways were identified after T. hemsleyanum treatment compared with the FS model group, among which 15 pathways overlapped with those identified by network pharmacology, and the PKC-δ/caspase-1 signaling pathway was a critical node. Finally, in vivo experiments also verified T. hemsleyanum inhibited the activation of microglia and resulted in a significant reduction in the level of PKCδ, NLRC4, caspase-1, IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α in hippocampus of FS rats.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggested that the therapeutic effect of T. hemsleyanum on FS might be regulated by inhibiting the neuroinflammation, thus exerting an anticonvulsant effect in vivo, and the mechanism might be related to regulating the PKC-δ/caspase-1 signaling pathway.

Functional characterization of a cold related flavanone 3-hydroxylase from Tetrastigma hemsleyanum: an in vitro, in silico and in vivo study

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg, a traditional Chinese medicine, frequently suffers from cold damage in the winter, leading to lower yields. There is a pressing need to improve cold resistance; however, the mechanisms underlying T. hemsleyanum responses to cold stress are still not clearly understood. Here, we explored the function of the flavanone 3-hydroxylase gene (ThF3H) in T. hemsleyanum under cold treatment. The open reading frame of ThF3H is 1092 bp and encodes 363 amino acid residues. In vitro, the ThF3H enzyme was expressed in E. coli and successfully catalyzed naringenin and eriodictyol into dihydrokaempferol and dihydroquercetin, respectively. ThF3H exhibited a higher affinity for naringenin than for eriodictyol, which was in accordance with an in silico molecular docking analysis. The optimal pH and temperature for ThF3H activity were 7.0 and 30 °C, respectively. In vivo, overexpression of the ThF3H gene enhanced the cold tolerance of transgenic Arabidopsis lines, which was likely due to the increase in flavonoids. Collectively, the function of a cold-related ThF3H in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway may be helpful for improving the cold tolerance of T. hemsleyanum through molecular breeding techniques.

Optimization of tetrastigma hemsleyanum extraction process based on GA-BPNN model and analysis of its antioxidant effect

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum (Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg) is a valuable traditional Chinese medicine with various applications. In this study, we aimed to optimize the extraction process for the total extraction yield of five flavonoid components, namely kaempferol, quercetin, rutin, kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside, and astragalin from the Tetrastigma hemsleyanum root (THR), and explore its potential molecular mechanisms in treating oxidative diseases as well as antioxidant activity. To achieve these objectives, we employed the genetic algorithm-back propagation neural network (GA-BPNN), the Box-Behnken design (BBD) with 4-factors and 3-levels to establish the optimal ethanol extraction process for the total extraction yield of the 5 components. Using public databases, the "component core targets-disease core target genes" networks were built, as well as molecular docking. Furthermore, DPPH was used to examine the antioxidant activity of the extracts obtained from THR under the optimal extraction process. The experimental value of the total extraction yield of the 5 components achieved a maximum of 788.12 mg/kg when the ethanol concentration was 73%, the solid-liquid ratio was 26 g/mL, and the ultrasonic duration was 30 min, and the ultrasonic temperature was 76 °C. When docked with protein molecules such as 6Y8I, quercetin, and other components received moderate to high scores. When the total concentration of the 5 components was 3.033 μg/mL, the DPPH radical scavenging rate was 89.81%. Compared with the BBD method, the GA-BPNN method is more efficient and reliable for optimizing the extraction process of active ingredients in THR because of its good data-fitting ability.

A low dose of naloxone mitigates autoimmune hepatitis by regulating TLR4/NF-κB and Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways

Naloxone is a non-selective opiate receptor antagonist that is mainly used in the management of acute opioid overdose or intoxication. Previously, naloxone has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Concanavalin A (Con A) model is a common and well established animal model of autoimmune hepatitis that closely resembles the pathological alterations that occur in human. The present study demonstrates that a low dose of naloxone (LD NX) has the ability to improve hepatic function and attenuate hepatic damage induced by Con A as indicated by a clear reduction in serum aminotransferase, bilirubin and enhancement of albumin production as well as liver pathological changes. Also, The proinflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon- γ (IFN-γ), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) were highly suppressed in animals pretreated with LD NX via interference with TLR4/NF-κB as well as JNK signaling pathways. Furthermore, oxidative stress was highly attenuated in animals pretreated with LD NX as indicated by high reduction in hepatic MDA and an increase in Nrf2, HO-1 expression and subsequent production of the endogenous antioxidants, SOD, CAT and GSH. Collectively, this study demonstrates that LD NX has the ability to mitigate Con A-induced autoimmune hepatitis via modulation of inflammatory cytokines secretion and interference with reactive oxygen species generation.

Oroxylin A inhibited autoimmune hepatitis-induced liver injury and shifted Treg/Th17 balance to Treg differentiation

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a kind of autoimmune disease mediated by T cells, and its incidence is gradually increasing in the world. Oroxylin A (OA) is one of the major bioactive flavonoids that has been reported to inhibit inflammatory. Here, an AIH model of mouse was induced by Concanavalin A (Con A). It found that serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) levels were decreased in mice with the treatment of OA. Hematoxylin-eosin staining showed that the liver injury was attenuated by OA, and TUNEL staining indicated that the cells apoptosis of liver was weakened in mice with OA treatment. ELISA analysis of cytokines and chemokines suggested that OA reduced the expression of IL-6, IL-17A, chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2), C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 1 (CXCL1) and CXCL10, but promoted the expression of IL-10 and TGF-β in mice. The mRNA levels of Il-17a in liver and spleen tissues were also significantly decreased, on the contrary, the mRNA levels of Il-10 in liver and spleen tissues were increased. The proportion of Treg/Th17 detected by flow cytometry revealed that OA promoted the differentiation of Treg and inhibited the differentiation of Th17 both in the liver and spleen. The results of this study demonstrated the inhibitory effects of OA on AIH-induced liver injury and the inflammatory response of AIH, and revealed that OA affected the balance of Treg/Th17 and shifted the balance toward Treg differentiation. It provided new potential drugs for the prevention of AIH.

Hydroxychloroquine protects against autoimmune premature ovarian insufficiency by modulating the Treg/Th17 cell ratio in BALB/c mice

AIMS

The role of hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) in premature ovarian insufficiency (POI) remains unclear. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of HCQ on ovarian function in mice with POI and to clarify its potential mechanisms.

METHODS

POI was induced in mice by injection with zona pellucida 3 peptide (pZP3), and HCQ was administered intragastrically. Stages of the estrous cycle were determined using vaginal cytology. The ovarian structure was observed under a microscope after hematoxylin-eosin staining. The levels of serum hormones and anti-ZP antibody (aZPAb) were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The expression levels of CD4, CD45, and ZP2, ZP3 were determined using immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry, respectively. The T regulatory (Treg)/ T helper 17 (Th17) cell ratio was analyzed using flow cytometry analysis. Western blotting was performed to assess the expression levels of proteins, transcription factors and cytokines.

RESULTS

Administration of HCQ to mice with POI greatly restored their estrus cycle. In the treatment group compared to the POI group, estradiol (E₂ ) levels were higher, and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) levels were lower. In addition, following pZP3, HCQ treatment increased ZP2 and ZP3 expression. Additionally, by inhibiting the activation of the TLR7 signaling pathway, HCQ attenuated the infiltration of inflammatory cells and prevented the activated naive CD4⁺ T cells from developing into Th17 cells.

CONCLUSION

Our findings showed that HCQ effectively restored ovarian function by altering the Treg/Th17 cell ratio in mice with POI, indicating that HCQ maybe a promising therapeutic method for patients with POI.

Screening out Biomarkers of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum for Anti-Cancer and Anti-Inflammatory Based on Spectrum-Effect Relationship Coupled with UPLC-Q-TOF-MS

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg. (T. hemsleyanum) is an economically and medicinally valuable species within the genus Tetrastigma. However, the material basis of its pharmacological action and the biomarkers associated with its anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory effects are still unclear. Additionally, the T. hemsleyanum industry cannot grow because there is a lack of a scientific, universal, and measurable quality control system. This study aimed to explore the chemical basis quality markers related to the anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory effects of T. hemsleyanum to establish an effective quality evaluation method. UPLC-Q-TOF-MSE fingerprint profiles of T. hemsleyanum from different origins were established. Pharmacodynamic studies used HepG2 and HuH-7 cells and LPS-induced RAW264.7 to evaluate the anti-tumor and anti-inflammatory effects of the active ingredients. The spectrum-effect relationships between UPLC fingerprints and anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory activities were evaluated using PCA and PLSR statistical methods. Moreover, docking analysis was performed to identify specific active biomarkers with molecular targets associated with cancer and inflammation. Chlorogenic acid, quinic acid, catechin, kaempferol 3-rutinoside, apigenin-8-C-glucoside, and linolenic acid were associated with anticancer activity, while chlorogenic acid, quercetin, quinic acid, kaempferol 3-rutinoside, rutinum, apigenin-8-C-glucoside, and linolenic acid were associated with anti-inflammatory activity. The spectrum-effect relationship of T. hemsleyanum was successfully established, and the biomarkers for anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory effects were preliminary confirmed. These findings provide a theoretical basis for the elucidation of the substance basis of T. hemsleyanum and lay the foundation for its rapid identification, quality control, industrial research, and utilization.

Compound small peptide of Chinese medicine alleviates cyclophosphamide induced immunosuppression in mice by Th17/Treg and jejunum intestinal flora

The aim of this study was to explore the efficacy of Compound small peptide of Chinese medicine (CSPCM) on cyclophosphamide (CTX) induced immunosuppression in mice. The 100 male Kunming mice were divided into 5 groups: group A (control group), group B (model group), group C (100 mg/kg.bw CSPCM), group D (200 mg/kg.bw CSPCM) and group E (400 mg/kg.bw CSPCM). At 1–3 days, mice of group B, C, D and E were intraperitoneally injected with 80 mg/kg.bw CTX. The results showed that compared with group A, the immune organ index, body weight change, RORγ T gene expression, RORγ T protein expression, CD3+ cell number, Th17 number and Alpha index, white blood cell count, lymphocyte count and monocyte count were significantly decreased in group B (p < 0.05), while Foxp3 gene expression, Foxp3 protein expression and Treg cell number were significantly increased (p < 0.05), CSPCM has a good therapeutic effect on the above abnormalities caused by CTX. CTX caused the decrease of intestinal flora richness and the abnormal structure of intestinal flora, and CSPCM could change the intestinal flora destroyed by CTX to the direction of intestinal flora of healthy mice. On the whole, CSPCM has a good therapeutic effect on CTX-induced immunosuppression in mice, which is reflected in the index of immune organs, the number of T lymphocytes and Th17 cells increased, the number of Treg cells decreased and the structure of intestinal flora was reconstructed.

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum leaf extracts ameliorate NAFLD in mice with low-grade colitis via the gut-liver axis

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a complex metabolic disorder, manifested as oxidative stress, lipid accumulation, and inflammation of the liver. Tetrastigma hemsleyanum leaves (THL), which are rich in flavonoids and phenolic acids, have good anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective effects. However, it is unknown whether THL extracts can improve NAFLD and the underlying mechanisms are unknown. Hence, this study was designed to investigate the effects of THL extracts on NAFLD and perform a preliminary inquiry into the underlying mechanism based on the gut-liver axis. The results showed that THL extracts could reverse NAFLD-related oxidative stress, lipid accumulation, and inflammation. Additionally, the protective effect of THL extracts on the gut includes the maintenance of the intestinal barrier and the regulation of gut microbiota, which may be one of the mechanisms by which THL improves NAFLD. To be specific, in our study, THL extracts alleviated hepatic lipid accumulation and oxidative stress by regulating the expression of lipid synthesis/catabolism and the oxidative stress genes (SREBP-1c/ACC-1/PPAR-α/PPAR-γ/Keap1/Nrf2). In addition, THL extracts reduced damage to the intestinal barrier (ZO-1/Mucin2/occludin) and increased the relative abundance of Lactobacillales, Ruminococcaceae, and Bifidobacteriales in NAFLD mice. In short, THL extracts alleviated NAFLD-related oxidative stress, lipid accumulation, and inflammation in NAFLD mice which may be via the gut-liver axis (gut barrier integrity and gut microbiota).

Koumine ameliorates concanavalin A-induced autoimmune hepatitis in mice: involvement of the Nrf2, NF-κB pathways, and gut microbiota

Gelsemiumelegans(Gardner. & Chapm.) Benth. has long been considered a traditional Chinese medicine effective against rheumatoid pain, cancer, cirrhosis, and skin diseases. Koumine (KM), the most abundant alkaloid in G.elegans Benth., demonstrates a variety of biological effects, including antitumor, analgesic, anxiolytic, anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, antioxidant, immunoregulatory, and hepatoprotective effects. Furthermore, the relatively low toxicity of KM makes it a promising drug candidate. This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of KM and its possible mechanisms using a concanavalin A (Con A)-induced autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) model in mice. Mice were orally administered different doses of KM for 14 d before Con A tail vein injections. The effects of KM on serum biochemical markers and liver histopathology were then evaluated 12 h after Con A exposure. The Nrf2 and NF-κB signaling pathways and alterations in gut microbiota were determined using western blotting, immunohistochemistry, and 16S rRNA sequencing to explore the underlying mechanisms of KM exposure. KM pretreatment dose-dependently decreased serum liver injury markers (Alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase) and cytokine levels (Tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6), as well as the liver pathological damage triggered by Con A. Furthermore, the results of the multi-technique analysis indicated that KM activated the Nrf2 pathway, upregulated the expression of anti-oxidation factors HO-1 and Nrf2, and downregulated the expression of Keap1. Moreover, the NF-κB signaling pathway was inhibited. Interestingly, pre-treatment with KM also significantly improved the composition of the gut microbiota probably because it increases the richness of probiotics. Our findings suggest that KM pretreatment could attenuate Con A-induced AIH, the Nrf2 and NF-κB signaling pathways, and that gut microbiota are involved in the process of the hepatoprotective effect. This study provides a theoretical basis for the development of KM as an effective agent against AIH.

Gut microbiota and transcriptome profiling revealed the protective effect of aqueous extract of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum leaves on ulcerative colitis in mice

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum, a traditional Chinese medicinal plant, possesses various biological activities, including anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory functions. The purpose of this study was to determine the alleviating effect of the water extract of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum leaves (THLW) on ulcerative colitis (UC) and its relationship with gut microbiota. The administration of THLW significantly decreased the severity of dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced intestinal damage, as demonstrated by the stabilization of body weight and colon length, and decreased disease activity index (DAI) and histological scores. THLW also decreased NF-κB protein expression in colon tissues and reduced the serum levels of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α. Further co-housing experiment confirmed that the anti-UC effect of THLW was possibly by regulating the structure and composition of gut microbiota, including increasing the abundance of Oscillospiraceae, Prevotellaceae and Corynebacterium. Additionally, the expression of genes related to inflammation and immunity was also regulated by THLW treatment as evidenced by transcriptome analysis. These results suggested that the protective effect of THLW on DSS-induced colitis was mediated by alleviating inflammation and modulating the microbiota composition. This work proved the potent protective effects of THLW treatment on colitis and may have potential for UC relief.

Total flavonoids from the dried root of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg inhibit colorectal cancer growth through PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway

The dried root of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg is used as a traditional Chinese medicine in southern China, as a folk remedy for carcinomas and gastrointestinal diseases. The total flavonoids of T. hemsleyanum (THTF) provide its main bioactive constituents. However, the mechanisms underlying its potential activity on colorectal cancer are still unknown. Here, we investigated the antitumor effect of THTF on colorectal cancer in vitro and in vivo. It was found that THTF inhibited HCT-116 and HT-29 cell growth, with an IC₅₀ of 105.60 and 140.80 μg/mL, respectively. THTF suppressed clonogenicity and promoted apoptosis in HCT-116. In vivo, THTF (120 mg/kg) delayed tumor growth in HCT-116 xenografts without influencing on body weight, organ pathology and indexes, and blood routine level. Mechanistically, THTF inhibited the expression of PI3K, AKT, and mTOR at the protein level and transcriptional levels. Molecular docking indicated eight compounds in THTF (kaempferol 3-rutinoside, rutinum, isoquercitrin, L-epicatechin, quercetin, astragalin, kaempferol 3-sambubioside, and catechin) strongly bound with amino acid sites of PI3K and mTOR proteins, indicating a high affinity. The results suggest that THTF delayed colorectal tumor growth by inhibiting the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway and might be a potential candidate for colorectal cancer prevention.

The Effects of Fenugreek Extract on Growth Performance, Serum Biochemical Indexes, Immunity and NF-κB Signaling Pathway in Broiler

In order to study the regulation of Fenugreek seed extract (FSE) on the immunity of broilers, and explore the appropriate amount of FSE in broilers' production, 1-day-old yellow feather broilers with a total of 420 birds were randomly allocated into seven treatments. Each treatment had six replicates, with 10 birds per replicate. The two control groups were the basic fodder group fed with basal diet and the bacitracin zinc group added 30 mg/kg bacitracin zinc to the basal diet. Experimental groups included five levels of FSE (50, 100, 200, 400, and 800 mg/kg FSE to the basal diet, respectively). The pre-test period was 7 days and the formal test lasted for 56 days. The results showed that the average daily gain (ADG) of 50 and 800 mg/kg FSE groups was significantly increased (P < 0.01), and the feed to gain ratio (F/G) of FSE groups was significantly decreased (P < 0.01) compared with the basic fodder and the bacitracin zinc groups. Compared with the basic fodder group, the serum total cholesterol (TC) content in the FSE groups was significantly decreased (P < 0.05), the serum low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) content of 50, 100, and 800 mg/kg FSE groups was significantly lower than that of the basic fodder group (P < 0.05). Compared with the basic fodder and bacitracin zinc groups, the serum immunoglobulins (IgG, IgM, IgA) content of 100 and 200 mg/kg FSE groups were significantly increased (P < 0.05). Compared with the bacitracin zinc group, the serum interleukins (IL-1, IL-10) content of 400 mg/kg FSE group were significantly increased (P ≤ 0.05), and the serum interferon-γ (IFN-γ) content of 100 and 200 mg/kg FSE groups was significantly increased (P < 0.05). Compared with the basic fodder group, the lower doses (0–400 mg/kg) of FSE had no significant effect on the mRNA expression of toll-like receptors 4/ myeloid differentiation factor 88/ nuclear factor-κB (TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB) signaling pathways (P > 0.05). The 800 mg/kg FSE treatment group significantly increased the expression levels of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) mRNA in the spleen of broilers (P < 0.05). The zinc bacitracin group significantly increased the expression levels of myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) mRNA (P ≤ 0.05). The results showed that FSE could promote the secretion of immunoglobulins, regulate the body's cytokines, and have a positive effect on immunity in broilers. Furthermore, the recommended supplement of FSE is 100 mg/kg in the broiler diet.

Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 6 Identified as the Target Protein in the Antitumor Activity of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum

Background

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum (T. hemsleyanum) is widely used as an adjuvant drug for tumor therapy but its antitumor therapeutic targets and molecular mechanisms have remained unclear. The prediction and analysis of natural products has previously used only network pharmacology methods to identify potential target proteins from public databases. In this study, we use comprehensive bioinformatics analysis and experimental verification to determine the antitumor mechanism of T. hemsleyanum.

Methods

Network pharmacology analysis was used to predict the potential in vivo target proteins of T. hemsleyanum. The expression matrix and clinical data to perform an analysis of hub genes were collected from the TCGA and GTEx databases, specifically the analysis of expression, prognosis, tumor immune cell infiltration analysis, immune checkpoint genes, microsatellite instability, tumor mutational burden, tumor neoantigen, and immune microenvironment, which identify the roles and biological functions of the hub genes in pan-cancer. Finally, gene set enrichment analysis was used to verify the biological processes and signaling pathways involved in the pan-cancer expression profile.

Results

We found 124 potential in vivo target proteins of T. hemsleyanum through network pharmacological analysis, and five hub genes (AKR1C1, MET, PTK2, PIK3R1, and CDK6) were then screened by protein–protein interaction (PPI) network analysis and molecular complex detection analysis (MCODE). Experimental intervention with an aqueous extract of T. hemsleyanum verified that these hub genes are the target proteins involved in the regulation of T. hemsleyanum in cells. A pan-cancer analysis then confirmed that CDK6 and MET are potential targets upon which T. hemsleyanum may exert antitumor action, especially in ACC, CESC, LGG, and PAAD. The CDK6 protein targeted by T. hemsleyanum is also involved in the immune and mutation process of pan-cancer, especially in the regulation of immune cell infiltration, immune checkpoint gene expression, microsatellite instability, tumor mutation burdens, and tumor neoantigens. Together, these analyses show that T. hemsleyanum affects tumor immune regulation and genomic stability. Finally, a gene set enrichment analysis confirmed that T. hemsleyanum regulates the cell cycle checkpoint.

Conclusions

We found that T. hemsleyanum can behave as an antitumor agent by acting as a potential cell cycle checkpoint inhibitor in CDK6-driven tumors, such as ACC, CESC, LGG, and PAAD, and that it acts as a tyrosine kinase receptor inhibitor that inhibits the expression of the proto-oncogene MET. Combined with an analysis of immune and mutation correlations in pan-cancer, we determined that T. hemsleyanum may function biologically as an immune regulator and interfere with the stability of the tumor genome, which is worthy of further study.

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg ameliorates lipopolysaccharide induced sepsis via repairing the intestinal mucosal barrier

OBJECTIVE

Sepsis causes excessive systemic inflammation and leads to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). The intestine plays a key role in the occurrence and development of sepsis. Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg (San ye qing, SYQ), a precious Chinese medicine, has been widely used for centuries due to its high traditional value, such as a remarkable anti-inflammatory effect. However, the role of SYQ in intestinal permeability during the development of sepsis needs to be discovered.

METHODS

Mice were intraperitoneally injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to simulate intestinal mucosal barrier function damage in sepsis. Pathological section, inflammatory cytokines, tight junctions, cell apoptosis, and intestinal flora were detected to evaluate the protective effect of SYQ on intestinal mucosal barrier injury in LPS-induced septic mice.

RESULTS

The results showed that SYQ treatment obviously attenuated LPS-induced intestinal injury and reduced the production of tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin 1β (IL-1β), and interleukin 6 (IL-6). Besides, SYQ also up-regulated the expressions of tight junctions, including Zonula occludens 1 (ZO-1), Claudin-5, and Occludin along with a decreased in the levels of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) and myosin light chain (MLC). In addition, SYQ down-regulated the expression of Bax/Bcl2 as well as that of cleaved caspase-3 to prevent the cells from undergoing apoptosis. Further, SYQ restored the diversity of the intestinal flora, increased the abundance of Firmicutes, and decreased the abundance of Bacteroidota.

CONCLUSIONS

The study indicated that SYQ exerted its protective effect on intestinal mucosal barrier injury in LPS-induced septic mice by reducing inflammatory response, improving the tight junction protein expression, inhibiting cell apoptosis, and adjusting the intestinal flora structure.

Multi-omics analyses revealed key factors involved in fluorescent carbon-dots-regulated secondary metabolism in Tetrastigma hemsleyanum

BACKGROUND

Luminescent nanomaterials (LNMs), especially newly-exploited fluorescent carbon-dots (CDs), have demonstrated promising candidates for sunlight harvesting and enhanced photosynthesis efficiency of crops. However, most of the studies focus on the design and synthesis of LNMs and primary metabolism in biomass acceleration, secondary metabolism that closely associated with the quality ingredients of plants is rarely mentioned.

RESULTS

UV-absorptive and water-soluble NIR-CDs were harvested via a facile microwave-assisted carbonization method. The effect and regulatory mechanism of NIR-CDs on the secondary metabolism and bioactive ingredients accumulation in Tetrastigma hemsleyanum were explored. A total of 191 differential secondary metabolites and 6874 differentially expressed genes were identified when the NIR-CDs were adopted for enhancing growth of T. hemsleyanum. The phenolic acids were generally improved, but the flavonoids were more likely to decrease. The pivotal differentially expressed genes were involved in biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, flavonoid biosynthesis, porphyrin and chlorophyll metabolism, etc. The gene-metabolite association was constructed and 44 hub genes highly related to quality ingredients accumulation and growth were identified, among which and the top 5 genes of the PPI network might be the key regulators.

CONCLUSION

This research provided key regulatory genes and differentially accumulating quality ingredients under NIR-CDs-treatment, which could provide a theoretical basis for expanding the applications of nanomaterial in industrial crop agriculture.

Vitexin attenuates autoimmune hepatitis in mouse induced by syngeneic liver cytosolic proteins via activation of AMPK/AKT/GSK-3β/Nrf2 pathway

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic progressive liver disease that currently does not have a successful therapeutic option. Vitexin, a bioflavonoid isolated from various medicinal plants, possesses a variety of activities; however, whether vitexin protects against AIH remains unclear. Therefore, the current study aims to investigate the hepatoprotective effects and mechanism of action of vitexin in both an experimental autoimmune hepatitis (EAH) mouse model and in D-galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide (D-GalN/LPS)-induced hepatocyte injury. Syngeneic liver antigen S100 was used to establish EAH. Vitexin treatment significantly decreased the infiltration of inflammatory and CD4⁺ T cells in the liver, reduced ALT and AST levels in the serum and attenuated hepatic injury due to oxidative stress. Moreover, vitexin mitigated the upregulation of Bax and cleaved caspase-3 and the downregulation of Bcl-2 in the livers of AIH mice. These regulations were accompanied by not only increased phosphorylation of AMPK, AKT and GSK-3β but also activation of Nrf2. Furthermore, vitexin inhibited apoptosis and the overexpression of inflammatory cytokines in D-GalN/LPS-treated AML12 cells. In addition, vitexin enhanced the phosphorylation of AMPK, AKT and GSK-3β. When AML12 cells were treated with an inhibitor of AMPK/AKT or specific siRNA targeting Nrf2, vitexin did not further induce the activation of Nrf2/HO-1. A molecular docking study confirmed that vitexin could interact with AMPK through hydrogen bonding interactions. In conclusion, vitexin ameliorated hepatic injury in EAH mice through activation of the AMPK/AKT/GSK-3β pathway and upregulation of the Nrf2 gene.

Bioactives and their metabolites from Tetrastigma hemsleyanum leaves ameliorate DSS-induced colitis via protecting the intestinal barrier, mitigating oxidative stress and regulating the gut microbiota

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum, a precious edible and medicinal plant in China, has attracted extensive research attention in recent years due to its high traditional value for the treatment of various diseases. In vitro digestion and colonic fermentation models were established to evaluate the stability of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum leaves (THL) phenolics by the HPLC-QqQ-MS/MS method. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents were degraded during digestion and fermentation. 3-caffeoylquinic acid, 5-caffeoylquinic acid, orientin and (iso)vitexin were metabolized by digestive enzymes and the gut microbiota, and absorbed in the form of glycosides and smaller phenolic acids for hepatic metabolism. The protective effects of THL on dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis in mice and potential mechanisms were explored. The results showed that THL supplementation increased the body weight and colon length, and the expression levels of tight junction proteins including occludin, claudin-1 and ZO-1 were up-regulated by THL. The secretions of pro-inflammatory cytokines containing IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α were significantly suppressed, whereas the content of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was promoted in the THL treated group. In addition, THL treatment activated the nuclear transfer of Nrf2, improved the expression of SOD, CAT, HO-1, NQO1 and GCLC, and decreased the content of MPO and MDA. It is worth noting that THL treatment significantly increased the content of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), increased the abundance of Ruminococcaceae, and decreased the abundance of Verrucomicrobia which is positively correlated with pro-inflammatory cytokines. These results indicated that THL effectively inhibited DSS-induced colitis by maintaining the intestinal epithelial barrier, mitigated oxidative stress through regulating the Keap1/Nrf2 signaling pathway and regulated the imbalance of the intestinal flora structure.

Machine learning classification of origins and varieties of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum using a dual-mode microscopic hyperspectral imager

A dual-mode microscopic hyperspectral imager (DMHI) combined with a machine learning algorithm for the purpose of classifying origins and varieties of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum (T. hemsleyanum) was developed. By switching the illumination source, the DMHI can operate in reflection imaging and fluorescence detection modes. The DMHI system has excellent performance with spatial and spectral resolutions of 27.8 μm and 3 nm, respectively. To verify the capability of the DMHI system, a series of classification experiments of T. hemsleyanum were conducted. Captured hyperspectral datasets were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA) for dimensional reduction, and a support vector machine (SVM) model was used for classification. In reflection microscopic hyperspectral imaging (RMHI) mode, the classification accuracies of T. hemsleyanum origins and varieties were 96.3% and 97.3%, respectively, while in fluorescence microscopic hyperspectral imaging (FMHI) mode, the classification accuracies were 97.3% and 100%, respectively. Combining datasets in dual mode, excellent predictions of origin and variety were realized by the trained model, both with a 97.5% accuracy on a newly measured test set. The results show that the DMHI system is capable of T. hemsleyanum origin and variety classification, and has the potential for non-invasive detection and rapid quality assessment of various kinds of medicinal herbs.

MIG/CXCL9 exacerbates the progression of metabolic-associated fatty liver disease by disrupting Treg/Th17 balance

CD4⁺CD25⁺ regulatory T (Treg) cells and Th17 cells play important roles in the progression of metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD). However, the contribution of monokine induced by interferon-gamma (MIG)/CXCL9 to the Treg/Th17 imbalance in MAFLD is only partially understood. In the present study, we detected increased levels of MIG/CXCL9 and a Treg/Th17 imbalance in the setting of metabolic-associated steatohepatitis (MASH). Recombinant adeno-associated virus-mediated gene transfer and silencing of MIG/CXCL9 expression in mice alleviated MASH and increased the Treg/Th17 ratio. Furthermore, the percentage of Th17 cells, but not Treg cells, differentiated from splenic CD4⁺ T cells was significantly increased by administration of MIG/CXCL9. MIG/CXCL9 also promoted Th17 cell proliferation, and its effects were dose dependent. Levels of phosphorylated c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) decreased dramatically when MIG/CXCL9 was inhibited in a murine MASH model. In cultured Treg cells, phosphorylated JNK levels decreased dose-dependently in response to MIG/CXCL9 inhibition, but increased in cultured Th17 cells. This effect was blocked in the presence of a JNK inhibitor. These findings underline the fundamental importance of MIG/CXCL9 in maintaining the Treg/Th17 balance in MAFLD and provide the foundations for a novel approach to preventing and treating MAFLD.

Digital RNA-seq transcriptome plus tissue anatomy analyses reveal the developmental mechanism of the calabash-shaped root in Tetrastigma hemsleyanum

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels & Gilg ex Diels is a liana plant with promising medicinal and ornamental values. Its calabash-shaped roots (CRs) are served as a traditional Chinese herb. However, it takes a long growth period to form CRs. In this study, three types of architectural roots, including fibrous roots (FRs), bar-shaped roots (BRs) and CRs, were employed as materials, and the characteristics of histo-anatomy and digital RNA-seq transcriptome profiles were analyzed. Among the three types of roots, the vascular bundles in FRs were intact, while some of the vascular bundles degenerated in BRs, and only few traces of vascular bundles existed in CRs. Meanwhile, no obvious cell inclusions were found in the cytoplasm of FRs, while a few inclusions were found in BRs, and abundant inclusions were detected in CRs, which might be the main source of medicinal components in roots. The transcriptome profiles and qRT-PCR validation indicated that seven upregulated genes, encoding xyloglucan glycosyltransferase, ACC oxidase, CYP711A1, SHORT-ROOT transcript factor, galacturonosyltransferas, WAT1 and WRKY, and two downregulated genes, encoding LRR receptor-like serine/threonine-protein kinase and CYP83B1, were probably involved in the formation and development of CRs. In addition, Gene Ontology terms of intrinsic component of membrane, integral component of membrane, cell periphery, membrane part, plasma membrane, membrane, intrinsic component of plasma membrane, cellular chemical homeostasis and plasma membrane part were probably related to the formation of CRs. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathways related to the development of CRs probably included MAPK signaling pathway-plant, plant hormone signal transduction and circadian rhythm-plant. Our finding suggested a probable mode for the formation of CRs.

Polysaccharides from Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg: optimum extraction, monosaccharide compositions, and antioxidant activity

The optimization of extraction of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg polysaccharides (THP) using ultrasonic with enzyme method and its monosaccharide compositions and antioxidant activity were investigated in this work. Single-factor experiments and response surface methodology (RSM) were performed to optimize conditions for extraction, and the independent variables were (X_A) dosage of cellulase, (X_B) extraction time, (X_C) ultrasonic power, and (X_D) ratio of water to the material. The extraction rate of THP was increased effectively under the optimum conditions, and the maximum (4.692 ± 0.059%) was well-matched the predicted value from RSM. THP was consisted of mannose, glucuronic acid, rhamnose, galacturonic acid, glucose, galactose, and arabinose, while glucose was the dominant (26.749 ± 0.634%). According to the total antioxidant capacity assay with the FRAP method, DPPH, and hydroxyl radical scavenging assay, THP showed strong antioxidant activity with a dose-dependent behavior. The results indicated that THP has the potential to be a novel antioxidant and could expand its application in food and medicine.

Extract From Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Leaf Alleviates Pseudomonas aeruginosa Lung Infection: Network Pharmacology Analysis and Experimental Evidence

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels & Gilg (T. hemsleyanum) has attracted much attention due to its ability on pneumonia, bronchitis, and immune-related diseases, while its functional components and underlying mechanism of action on pneumonia have not been fully elucidated. Herein, we used a systematic network pharmacology approach to explore the action mechanism of T. hemsleyanum leaf in the treatment of pneumonia. In this study, the results of network pharmacology demonstrated that there were 34 active components and 80 drug-disease targets in T. hemsleyanum leaf, which were strongly in connection with signal transduction, inflammatory response, and the oxidation-reduction process. Subsequently, a mouse model of pneumonia induced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) was established to validate the predicted results of network pharmacology. In the animal experiments, aqueous extract of T. hemsleyanum leaf (EFT) significantly attenuated the histopathological changes of lung tissue in P. aeruginosa-induced mice and reduced the number of bacterial colonies in BALFs by 96.84% (p < 0.01). Moreover, EFT treatment suppressed the increase of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-17, IL-6, and TNF-α in lung tissues triggered by P. aeruginosa, which led to the increase of Th17 cells (p < 0.05). High concentration of EFT treatment (2.0 g/kg) obviously increased the anti-inflammatory cytokine levels, accompanied by the enhancement of Treg proportion in a dose-dependent manner and a notable reversal of transcription factor RORγt expression. These findings demonstrated that network pharmacology was a useful tool for TCM research, and the anti-inflammatory effect of EFT was achieved by maintaining Th17/Treg immune homeostasis and thereby suppressing the inflammatory immune response.

Polysaccharide Isolated From Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Activates TLR4 in Macrophage Cell Lines and Enhances Immune Responses in OVA-Immunized and LLC-Bearing Mouse Models

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg is a valuable Chinese medicinal herb with a long history of clinical application. Our previous study isolated and characterized a purified polysaccharide from the aerial part of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum (SYQP) and found it having antipyretic and antitumor effects in mice. A preliminary mechanistic study suggests these effects may be related to the binding of toll-like receptor (TLR4). The objective of this study is to further explore the detailed stimulating characteristics of SYQP on TLR4 signaling pathway and its in vivo immune regulating effect. We use HEK-BLUE hTLR4, mouse and human macrophage cell lines, as research tools. In vitro results show SYQP activated HEK-BLUE hTLR4 instead of HEK-BLUE Null cells. The secretion and the mRNA expression of cytokines related to TLR4 signaling significantly increased after SYQP treatment in both PMA-induced THP-1 and RAW264.7 macrophage cell lines. The TLR4 antagonist TAK-242 can almost completely abolish this activation. Furthermore, molecules such as IRAK1, NF-κB, MAPKs, and IRF3 in both the MyD88 and TRIF branches were all activated without pathway selection. In vivo results show SYQP enhanced antigen-specific spleen lymphocyte proliferation and serum IgG levels in OVA-immunized C57BL/6 mice. Orally administered 200 mg/kg SYQP induced obvious tumor regression, spleen weight increase, and the upregulation of the mRNA expression of TLR4-related cytokines in Lewis lung carcinoma-bearing mice. These results indicate SYQP can act as both a human and mouse TLR4 agonist and enhance immune responses in mice (p < 0.05). This study provides a basis for the development and utilization of SYQP as a new type of TLR4 agonist in the future.

Total flavonoids of Radix Tetrastigma suppress inflammation-related hepatocellular carcinoma cell metastasis

This study aimed to investigate the effects of the total flavonoids of Radix Tetrastigma (RTF) on inflammation-related hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) development. Extracted RTF was diluted to different concentrations for subsequent experiments. HCC cells were cotreated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and RTF to investigate the effects of RTF on LPS-stimulated HCC cells. A CCK-8 kit was used to measure cell proliferation. Apoptosis was detected with a flow cytometer. Cell migration and invasion were quantified by wound healing and Transwell assays, respectively. The expression of TLR4 and COX-2 and activation of the NF-κB pathway were determined by Western blotting. Treatment with LPS significantly enhanced cell proliferation and decreased the apoptosis rate, while cell migration and invasion were notably upregulated. RTF suppressed the proliferation and invasion induced by LPS stimulation and promoted HCC cell apoptosis. The protein levels of Bax and cleaved caspase-3 were decreased and that of Bcl-2 was increased by LPS in HCC cells, which could be rescued by RTF. RTF significantly inhibited the LPS-induced expression of the proinflammatory mediators IL-6 and IL-8 in HCC cells. Mechanistically, with RTF treatment, the upregulated expression of TLR4 and COX-2 induced by LPS was obviously downregulated. Furthermore, the phosphorylation of NF-κB/p65 was significantly decreased in LPS-stimulated cells after supplementation with RTF. Our study suggests that RTF exerts a significant inhibitory effect on the LPS-induced enhancement of the malignant behaviors of HCC cells via inactivation of TLR4/NF-κB signaling. RTF may be a promising chemotherapeutic agent to limit HCC development and inflammation-mediated metastasis.

Summary of Natural Products Ameliorate Concanavalin A-Induced Liver Injury: Structures, Sources, Pharmacological Effects, and Mechanisms of Action

Liver diseases represent a threat to human health and are a significant cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a progressive and chronic hepatic inflammatory disease, which may lead to severe complications. Concanavalin A (Con A)-induced hepatic injury is regarded as an appropriate experimental model for investigating the pathology and mechanisms involved in liver injury mediated by immune cells as well as T cell-related liver disease. Despite the advances in modern medicine, the only available strategies to treat AIH, include the use of steroids either solely or with immunosuppressant drugs. Unfortunately, this currently available treatment is associated with significant side-effects. Therefore, there is an urgent need for safe and effective drugs to replace and/or supplement those in current use. Natural products have been utilized for treating liver disorders and have become a promising therapy for various liver disorders. In this review, the natural compounds and herbal formulations as well as extracts and/or fractions with protection against liver injury caused by Con A and the underlying possible mechanism(s) of action are reviewed. A total of 53 compounds from different structural classes are discussed and over 97 references are cited. The goal of this review is to attract the interest of pharmacologists, natural product researchers, and synthetic chemists for discovering novel drug candidates for treating immune-mediated liver injury.

A comprehensive review on traditional uses, chemical compositions, pharmacology properties and toxicology of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg (T.hemsleyanum), a rare herbal plant distributed in subtropical areas of mainland China, has become a focus of scientific attention in recent years because of its high traditional value, including uses for treatment of children with fever, pneumonia, asthma, rheumatism, hepatitis, menstrual disorders, scrofula, and pharynx pain.

AIM

This systematic review aims to provide an insightful understanding of traditional uses, chemical composition, pharmacological effect and clinical application of T. hemsleyanum, and lay a foundation for the further study and for the utilization of T. hemsleyanum resource.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A domestic and overseas literature search in known databases was conducted for published articles using the relevant keywords.

RESULTS

One hundred and forty-two chemical constituents identified from T. hemsleyanum have been reported, including flavonoids, phenolic acids, polysaccharide, organic acids, fatty acids, terpenoids, steroids, amino acid and others. Among these components, flavonoids and polysaccharides were the representative active ingredients of T. hemsleyanum, which have been widely investigated. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that these components exhibited various pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antivirus, antitumor, antipyretic, anti-hepatic injury, immunomodulatory, antibacterial etc. Moreover, different toxicological studies indicated that the clinical dosage of T. hemsleyanum was safe and reliable.

CONCLUSIONS

Modern pharmacological studies have well supported and clarified some traditional uses, and T. hemsleyanum has a good prospect for the development of new drugs due to these outstanding properties. However, the present findings did not provide an in-depth evaluation of bioactivity of the extracts, the composition of its active extracts was not clear. Moreover, they were insufficient to satisfactorily explain some mechanisms of action. Data regarding many aspects of T. hemsleyanum, such as links between the traditional uses and bioactivities, pharmacokinetics, quality control standard and the clinical value of active compositions is still limited which need more attention.

Regulatory T Cells in Autoimmune Hepatitis: Unveiling Their Roles in Mouse Models and Patients

Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a severe and chronic liver disease, and its incidence has increased worldwide in recent years. Research into the pathogenesis of AIH remains limited largely owing to the lack of suitable mouse models. The concanavalin A (ConA) mouse model is a typical and well-established model used to investigate T cell-dependent liver injury. However, ConA-induced hepatitis is acute and usually disappears after 48 h; thus, it does not mimic the pathogenesis of AIH in the human body. Several studies have explored various AIH mouse models, but as yet there is no widely accepted and valid mouse model for AIH. Immunosuppression is the standard clinical therapy for AIH, but patient side effects and recurrence limit its use. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) play critical roles in the maintenance of immune homeostasis and in the prevention of autoimmune diseases, which may provide a potential therapeutic target for AIH therapy. However, the role of Tregs in AIH has not yet been clarified, partly because of difficulties in diagnosing AIH and in collecting patient samples. In this review, we discuss the studies related to Treg in various AIH mouse models and patients with AIH and provide some novel insights for this research area.

The Phytochemistry, Pharmacology, and Quality Control of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels & Gilg in China: A Review

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels & Gilg (TDG), the family member of Vitaceae, is a traditional herbal medicine in China. The root of TDG can be immediately used after cleaning the muddy soil, and can be dehydrated for dry use. TDG is able to be collected all year round, which is commonly used in the treatment of hepatitis, infantile high fever, snake bite, etc. Based on phytochemistry, the chemical components of TDG are divided into flavonoids, phenolic acids, terpenes, steroids, polysaccharide, and other compounds, showing many pharmacological effects which include anti-tumor, anti-oxidation, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, analgesic, and immunomodulatory activity, as well as other activities. Currently, TDG involves some problems of the reduction of wild resources, the backward processing methods, and storage difficulties as well as the imperfection of detection methods. Therefore, this review summarizes the literature of the past 20 years, and the purpose of this review is to summarize the recent researches on the phytochemistry, pharmacology, quality control, and clinical application of TDG. The above discussions provide new insights for the future research on TDG.

Lung inflammation induced by exposure to Bisphenol-A is associated with mTOR-mediated autophagy in adolescent mice

Epidemiologic studies show that there is a link between Bisphenol A (BPA) exposure and lung inflammation. Despite this, the molecular mechanisms are not entirely known. This study sought to determine whether exposure to BPA affected the development of ovalbumin (OVA) induced lung inflammation in adolescent female mice and whether the mechanism was related to mTOR-mediated autophagy pathway. Female 4-week-old C57BL/6 mice after one week of domestication were randomly divided into five groups (8/group): control group, OVA group, 0.1 μg mL^-1 BPA + OVA group, 0.2 μg mL^-1 BPA + OVA group and 0.4 μg mL^-1 BPA + OVA group. BPA exacerbated airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), induced the pathological changes in the lung, which also enhanced inflammatory cells and cytokine levels. In addition, BPA exposure affected expression of autophagy associated proteins and genes. This research results indicated that BPA aggravated OVA-induced lung inflammation and induced abnormal immune function in mice, and its mechanism was related to the activation of autophagy pathway by down-regulation expression of mTOR. These findings suggest that therapeutic strategies to target autophagy may offer a new approach for severe asthma therapy.