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Papamichail M, Eleftheriades A, Manolakos E, Papamichail A, Christopoulos P, Manegold-Brauer G, Eleftheriades M. Prenatal diagnosis of 18p deletion and 8p trisomy syndrome: literature review and report of a novel case. BMC Womens Health 2024; 24:241. [PMID: 38622524 PMCID: PMC11017580 DOI: 10.1186/s12905-024-03081-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
18p deletion syndrome constitutes one of the most frequent autosomal terminal deletion syndromes, affecting one in 50,000 live births. The syndrome has un-specific clinical features which vary significantly between patients and may overlap with other genetic conditions. Its prenatal description is extremely rare as the fetal phenotype is often not present during pregnancy. Trisomy 8p Syndrome is characterized by heterogenous phenotype, with the most frequent components to be cardiac malformation, developmental and intellectual delay. Its prenatal diagnosis is very rare due to the unspecific sonographic features of the affected fetuses. We present a very rare case of a fetus with multiple anomalies diagnosed during the second trimester whose genomic analysis revealed a 18p Deletion and 8p trisomy Syndrome. This is the first case where this combination of DNA mutations has been described prenatally and the second case in general. The presentation of this case, as well as the detailed review of all described cases, aim to expand the existing knowledge regarding this rare condition facilitating its diagnosis in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Papamichail
- Postgraduate Programme "Maternal Fetal Medicine" Medical School, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Anna Eleftheriades
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Women' Hospital, University Hospital of Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Emmanouil Manolakos
- Clinical Laboratory Genetics, Access To Genome (ATG), Athens-Thessaloniki-Greece, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Panagiotis Christopoulos
- 2nd Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical School, Aretaieio University Hospital, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Gwendolin Manegold-Brauer
- Department of Gynaecological Ultrasound and Prenatal Diagnostics, Women' Hospital, University Hospital of Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Makarios Eleftheriades
- 2nd Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Medical School, Aretaieio University Hospital, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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2
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Gug C, Stoicanescu D, Mozos I, Nussbaum L, Cevei M, Stambouli D, Pavel AG, Doros G. De novo 8p21.3→ p23.3 Duplication With t(4;8)(q35;p21.3) Translocation Associated With Mental Retardation, Autism Spectrum Disorder, and Congenital Heart Defects: Case Report With Literature Review. Front Pediatr 2020; 8:375. [PMID: 32733829 PMCID: PMC7362762 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2020.00375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Duplications of chromosome 8p lead to rare genetic conditions characterized by variable phenotypes. 8p21 and 8p23 duplications were associated with mental retardation but only 8p23 duplication was associated with heart defects. 8p22→ p21.3 duplications were associated with an autism spectrum disorder in several cases. We present a rare case with a de novo duplication of the entire 8p21.3→ p23.3 region, documented by karyotype, FISH, and array CGH, with t(4;8)(q35;p21.3) translocation in a 7 years-old girl. She was referred for genetic counseling at the age of 20 months due to mild dysmorphic facial features, psychomotor retardation, and a noncyanotic heart defect. Another examination carried out at the age of 5 years, enabled the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Upon re-examination after two years she was diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, liminal intellect with cognitive disharmony, delay in psychomotor acquisitions, developmental language delay, an instrumental disorder, and motor coordination disorder. Cytogenetic analysis using GTG technique revealed the following karyotype: 46,XX,der(4),t(4;8)(q35;p21.3). The translocation of the duplicated 8pter region to the telomeric region 4q was confirmed by FISH analysis (DJ580L5 probe). Array CGH showed: arr[GRCh37]8p23.3p21.3(125733_22400607) × 3. It identified a terminal duplication, a 22.3 Mb copy number gain of chromosome 8p23.3-p21.3, between 125,733 and 22,400,607. In this case, there is a de novo duplication of a large chromosomal segment, which was translocated to chromosome 4q. Our report provides additional data regarding neuropsychiatric features in chromosome 8p duplication. The phenotypic consequences in our patient allow clinical-cytogenetic correlations and may also reveal candidate genes for the phenotypic features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Gug
- Department of Microscopic Morphology, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania
| | - Dorina Stoicanescu
- Department of Microscopic Morphology, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania
| | - Ioana Mozos
- Department of Functional Sciences, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania
- Center for Translational Research and Systems Medicine, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania
| | - Laura Nussbaum
- Department of Neurosciences, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania
| | - Mariana Cevei
- Department of Psychoneuro Sciences and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, University of Oradea, Oradea, Romania
| | - Danae Stambouli
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Cytogenetics, Cytogenomic Medical Laboratory, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Anca Gabriela Pavel
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Cytogenetics, Cytogenomic Medical Laboratory, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Gabriela Doros
- Department of Pediatrics, Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Timisoara, Romania
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3
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Rylaarsdam L, Guemez-Gamboa A. Genetic Causes and Modifiers of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 13:385. [PMID: 31481879 PMCID: PMC6710438 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 47.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders, affecting an estimated 1 in 59 children. ASD is highly genetically heterogeneous and may be caused by both inheritable and de novo gene variations. In the past decade, hundreds of genes have been identified that contribute to the serious deficits in communication, social cognition, and behavior that patients often experience. However, these only account for 10-20% of ASD cases, and patients with similar pathogenic variants may be diagnosed on very different levels of the spectrum. In this review, we will describe the genetic landscape of ASD and discuss how genetic modifiers such as copy number variation, single nucleotide polymorphisms, and epigenetic alterations likely play a key role in modulating the phenotypic spectrum of ASD patients. We also consider how genetic modifiers can alter convergent signaling pathways and lead to impaired neural circuitry formation. Lastly, we review sex-linked modifiers and clinical implications. Further understanding of these mechanisms is crucial for both comprehending ASD and for developing novel therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alicia Guemez-Gamboa
- Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
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4
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Pain O, Pocklington AJ, Holmans PA, Bray NJ, O’Brien HE, Hall LS, Pardiñas AF, O’Donovan MC, Owen MJ, Anney R. Novel Insight Into the Etiology of Autism Spectrum Disorder Gained by Integrating Expression Data With Genome-wide Association Statistics. Biol Psychiatry 2019; 86:265-273. [PMID: 31230729 PMCID: PMC6664597 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.04.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A recent genome-wide association study (GWAS) of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) (ncases = 18,381, ncontrols = 27,969) has provided novel opportunities for investigating the etiology of ASD. Here, we integrate the ASD GWAS summary statistics with summary-level gene expression data to infer differential gene expression in ASD, an approach called transcriptome-wide association study (TWAS). METHODS Using FUSION software, ASD GWAS summary statistics were integrated with predictors of gene expression from 16 human datasets, including adult and fetal brains. A novel adaptation of established statistical methods was then used to test for enrichment within candidate pathways and specific tissues and at different stages of brain development. The proportion of ASD heritability explained by predicted expression of genes in the TWAS was estimated using stratified linkage disequilibrium score regression. RESULTS This study identified 14 genes as significantly differentially expressed in ASD, 13 of which were outside of known genome-wide significant loci (±500 kb). XRN2, a gene proximal to an ASD GWAS locus, was inferred to be significantly upregulated in ASD, providing insight into the functional consequence of this associated locus. One novel transcriptome-wide significant association from this study is the downregulation of PDIA6, which showed minimal evidence of association in the GWAS, and in gene-based analysis using MAGMA. Predicted gene expression in this study accounted for 13.0% of the total ASD single nucleotide polymorphism heritability. CONCLUSIONS This study has implicated several genes as significantly up/downregulated in ASD, providing novel and useful information for subsequent functional studies. This study also explores the utility of TWAS-based enrichment analysis and compares TWAS results with a functionally agnostic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Pain
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom,Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew J. Pocklington
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Peter A. Holmans
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas J. Bray
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Heath E. O’Brien
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Lynsey S. Hall
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Antonio F. Pardiñas
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Michael C. O’Donovan
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Michael J. Owen
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Anney
- Medical Research Council Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom.
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5
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Somatic mosaicism and neurodevelopmental disease. Nat Neurosci 2018; 21:1504-1514. [PMID: 30349109 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-018-0257-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Traditionally, we have considered genetic mutations that cause neurodevelopmental diseases to be inherited or de novo germline mutations. Recently, we have come to appreciate the importance of de novo somatic mutations, which occur postzygotically and are thus present in only a subset of the cells of an affected individual. The advent of next-generation sequencing and single-cell sequencing technologies has shown that somatic mutations contribute to normal and abnormal human brain development. Somatic mutations are one important cause of neuronal migration and brain overgrowth disorders, as suggested by visible focal lesions. In addition, somatic mutations contribute to neurodevelopmental diseases without visible lesions, including epileptic encephalopathies, intellectual disability, and autism spectrum disorder, and may contribute to a broad range of neuropsychiatric diseases. Studying somatic mutations provides insight into the mechanisms underlying human brain development and neurodevelopmental diseases and has important implications for diagnosis and treatment.
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6
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Silan F, Bourouba R, Karakaya T, Yildiz O, Paksoy B, Urfali M, Ozdemir O. The clinical, cytogenetics and molecular characterization of inverted duplication/deletion of chromosome 8p in a boy with mental and motor retardation: Genotype-phenotype correlation in a case report. EGYPTIAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL HUMAN GENETICS 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmhg.2018.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
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Yang C, Li J, Wu Q, Yang X, Huang AY, Zhang J, Ye AY, Dou Y, Yan L, Zhou WZ, Kong L, Wang M, Ai C, Yang D, Wei L. AutismKB 2.0: a knowledgebase for the genetic evidence of autism spectrum disorder. DATABASE-THE JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL DATABASES AND CURATION 2018; 2018:5134097. [PMID: 30339214 PMCID: PMC6193446 DOI: 10.1093/database/bay106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder with strong genetic contributions. To provide a comprehensive resource for the genetic evidence of ASD, we have updated the Autism KnowledgeBase (AutismKB) to version 2.0. AutismKB 2.0 integrates multiscale genetic data on 1379 genes, 5420 copy number variations and structural variations, 11 669 single-nucleotide variations or small insertions/deletions (SNVs/indels) and 172 linkage regions. In particular, AutismKB 2.0 highlights 5669 de novo SNVs/indels due to their significant contribution to ASD genetics and includes 789 mosaic variants due to their recently discovered contributions to ASD pathogenesis. The genes and variants are annotated extensively with genetic evidence and clinical evidence. To help users fully understand the functional consequences of SNVs and small indels, we provided comprehensive predictions of pathogenicity with iFish, SIFT, Polyphen etc. To improve user experiences, the new version incorporates multiple query methods, including simple query, advanced query and batch query. It also functionally integrates two analytical tools to help users perform downstream analyses, including a gene ranking tool and an enrichment analysis tool, KOBAS. AutismKB 2.0 is freely available and can be a valuable resource for researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changhong Yang
- College of Life Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.,National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jiarui Li
- Institute of Infectious Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, Beijing Ditan Hospital Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Qixi Wu
- Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China.,School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoxu Yang
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - August Yue Huang
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China.,Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Adam Yongxin Ye
- Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China.,Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Yanmei Dou
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Linlin Yan
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Wei-Zhen Zhou
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,State Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Disease, Beijing Key Laboratory for Molecular Diagnostics of Cardiovascular Diseases, Diagnostic Laboratory Service, Fuwai Hospital, National Center for Cardiovascular Diseases, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Lei Kong
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Meng Wang
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Chen Ai
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Dechang Yang
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Liping Wei
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
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8
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Dou Y, Yang X, Li Z, Wang S, Zhang Z, Ye AY, Yan L, Yang C, Wu Q, Li J, Zhao B, Huang AY, Wei L. Postzygotic single-nucleotide mosaicisms contribute to the etiology of autism spectrum disorder and autistic traits and the origin of mutations. Hum Mutat 2017; 38:1002-1013. [PMID: 28503910 PMCID: PMC5518181 DOI: 10.1002/humu.23255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Revised: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The roles and characteristics of postzygotic single‐nucleotide mosaicisms (pSNMs) in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) remain unclear. In this study of the whole exomes of 2,361 families in the Simons Simplex Collection, we identified 1,248 putative pSNMs in children and 285 de novo SNPs in children with detectable parental mosaicism. Ultra‐deep amplicon resequencing suggested a validation rate of 51%. Analyses of validated pSNMs revealed that missense/loss‐of‐function (LoF) pSNMs with a high mutant allele fraction (MAF≥ 0.2) contributed to ASD diagnoses (P = 0.022, odds ratio [OR] = 5.25), whereas missense/LoF pSNMs with a low MAF (MAF<0.2) contributed to autistic traits in male non‐ASD siblings (P = 0.033). LoF pSNMs in parents were less likely to be transmitted to offspring than neutral pSNMs (P = 0.037), and missense/LoF pSNMs in parents with a low MAF were transmitted more to probands than to siblings (P = 0.016, OR = 1.45). We estimated that pSNMs in probands or de novo mutations inherited from parental pSNMs increased the risk of ASD by approximately 6%. Adding pSNMs into the transmission and de novo association test model revealed 13 new ASD risk genes. These results expand the existing repertoire of genes involved in ASD and shed new light on the contribution of genomic mosaicisms to ASD diagnoses and autistic traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanmei Dou
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoxu Yang
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Ziyi Li
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Sheng Wang
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China.,College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Zheng Zhang
- School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua-Peking Joint Center for Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Adam Yongxin Ye
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China.,Academy for Advanced Interdisciplinary Studies, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Linlin Yan
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Changhong Yang
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China.,College of Life Sciences Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Qixi Wu
- Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, Beijing, China.,Human Genetic Resources Core Facility, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Jiarui Li
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Boxun Zhao
- National Institute of Biological Sciences, Beijing, China.,Graduate School of Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - August Yue Huang
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Liping Wei
- Center for Bioinformatics, State Key Laboratory of Protein and Plant Gene Research, School of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
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9
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Tao Y, Gao H, Ackerman B, Guo W, Saffen D, Shugart YY. Evidence for contribution of common genetic variants within chromosome 8p21.2-8p21.1 to restricted and repetitive behaviors in autism spectrum disorders. BMC Genomics 2016; 17:163. [PMID: 26931105 PMCID: PMC4774106 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2475-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors (RRB), one of the core symptom categories for Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), comprises heterogeneous groups of behaviors. Previous research indicates that there are two or more factors (subcategories) within the RRB domain. In an effort to identify common variants associated with RRB, we have carried out a genome-wide association study (GWAS) using the Autism Genetic Resource Exchange (AGRE) dataset (n = 1,335, all ASD probands of European ancestry) for each identified RRB subcategory, while allowing for comparisons of associated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with associated SNPs in the same set of probands analyzed using all the RRB subcategories as phenotypes in a multivariate linear mixed model. The top ranked SNPs were then explored in an independent dataset. RESULTS Using principal component analysis of item scores obtained from Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised (ADI-R), two distinct subcategories within Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors were identified: Repetitive Sensory Motor (RSM) and Insistence on Sameness (IS). Quantitative RSM and IS scores were subsequently used as phenotypes in a GWAS using the AGRE ASD cohort. Although no associated SNPs with genome-wide significance (P < 5.0E-08) were detected when RSM or IS were analyzed independently, three SNPs approached genome-wide significance when RSM and IS were considered together using multivariate association analysis. These included the top IS-associated SNP, rs62503729 (P-value = 6.48E-08), which is located within chromosome 8p21.2-8p21.1, a locus previously linked to schizophrenia. Notably, all of the most significantly associated SNPs are located in close proximity to STMN4 and PTK2B, genes previously shown to function in neuron development. In addition, several of the top-ranked SNPs showed correlations with STMN4 mRNA expression in adult CEU (Caucasian and European descent) human prefrontal cortex. However, the association signals within chromosome 8p21.2-8p21.1 failed to replicate in an independent sample of 2,588 ASD probands; the insufficient sample size and between-study heterogeneity are possible explanations for the non-replication. CONCLUSIONS Our analysis indicates that RRB in ASD can be represented by two distinct subcategories: RSM and IS. Subsequent univariate and multivariate genome-wide association studies of these RRB subcategories enabled the detection of associated SNPs at 8p21.2-8p21.1. Although these results did not replicate in an independent ASD dataset, genomic features of this region and pathway analysis suggest that common variants in 8p21.2-8p21.1 may contribute to RRB, particularly IS. Together, these observations warrant future studies to elucidate the possible contributions of common variants in 8p21.2-8p21.1 to the etiology of RSM and IS in ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Tao
- Department of Cellular and Genetic Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, 130Dong'an Road, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Hui Gao
- Department of Cellular and Genetic Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, 130Dong'an Road, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Benjamin Ackerman
- JohnsHopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA. .,Unit on Statistical Genomics, Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Wei Guo
- Unit on Statistical Genomics, Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - David Saffen
- Department of Cellular and Genetic Medicine, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, 130Dong'an Road, Shanghai, 200032, China.
| | - Yin Yao Shugart
- Unit on Statistical Genomics, Intramural Research Program, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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10
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PSD-Zip70 Deficiency Causes Prefrontal Hypofunction Associated with Glutamatergic Synapse Maturation Defects by Dysregulation of Rap2 Activity. J Neurosci 2016; 35:14327-40. [PMID: 26490870 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2349-15.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Dysregulation of synapse formation and plasticity is closely related to the pathophysiology of psychiatric and neurodevelopmental disorders. The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is particularly important for executive functions such as working memory, cognition, and emotional control, which are impaired in the disorders. PSD-Zip70 (Lzts1/FEZ1) is a postsynaptic density (PSD) protein predominantly expressed in the frontal cortex, olfactory bulb, striatum, and hippocampus. Here we found that PSD-Zip70 knock-out (PSD-Zip70KO) mice exhibit working memory and cognitive defects, and enhanced anxiety-like behaviors. These abnormal behaviors are caused by impaired glutamatergic synapse transmission accompanied by tiny-headed immature dendritic spines in the PFC, due to aberrant Rap2 activation, which has roles in synapse formation and plasticity. PSD-Zip70 modulates the Rap2 activity by interacting with SPAR (spine-associated RapGAP) and PDZ-GEF1 (RapGEF) in the postsynapse. Furthermore, suppression of the aberrant Rap2 activation in the PFC rescued the behavioral defects in PSD-Zip70KO mice. Our data demonstrate a critical role for PSD-Zip70 in Rap2-dependent spine synapse development in the PFC and underscore the importance of this regulation in PFC-dependent behaviors. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT PSD-Zip70 deficiency causes behavioral defects in working memory and cognition, and enhanced anxiety due to prefrontal hypofunction. This study revealed that PSD-Zip70 plays essential roles in glutamatergic synapse maturation via modulation of the Rap2 activity in the PFC. PSD-Zip70 interacts with both SPAR (spine-associated RapGAP) and PDZ-GEF1 (RapGEF) and modulates the Rap2 activity in postsynaptic sites. Our results provide a novel Rap2-specific regulatory mechanism in synaptic maturation involving PSD-Zip70.
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11
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Dong P, Xu Q, An Y, Zhou BR, Lu P, Liu RC, Xu X. A Novel 1.0 Mb Duplication of Chromosome 8p22-21.3 in a Patient With Autism Spectrum Disorder. Child Neurol Open 2015; 2:1-6. [PMID: 35187197 PMCID: PMC8851130 DOI: 10.1177/2329048x15580673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2014] [Revised: 02/18/2015] [Accepted: 03/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders with a
strong genetic etiology. Cytogenetic abnormalities have been detected in
5% to 10% of the patients with autism spectrum disorders. In this
study, the authors present the clinical and array-based comparative genomic
hybridization evaluation of a 4-year-old male with autism spectrum disorder and
mental retardation. The patient was found to carry a de novo duplication of
chromosome 8p22-21.3 of 1.0 Mb as ascertained by quantitative polymerase chain
reaction, and this region encompassed 3 genes including Pleckstrin and
Sec7 domains-containing protein 3 (PSD3), SH2
domain-containing 4A (SH2D4A), and
Chondroitin Sulfate N-Acetylgalactosaminyltransferase 1
(CSGALNACT1). This represents the smallest
rearrangement of chromosome 8p as yet found in a patient with autism spectrum
disorder, but the significance of this mutation is still ambiguous.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Dong
- Department of Child Healthcare, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.,Co-first authors
| | - Qiong Xu
- Department of Child Healthcare, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.,Co-first authors
| | - Yu An
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences and MOE Key Laboratory of Contemporary Anthropology, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Bing-Rui Zhou
- Department of Child Healthcare, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping Lu
- Department of Child Healthcare, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Ren-Chao Liu
- The R&D of Molecular Genetics Laboratory, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiu Xu
- Department of Child Healthcare, Children's Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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12
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Uwineza A, Caberg JH, Hitayezu J, Hellin AC, Jamar M, Dideberg V, Rusingiza EK, Bours V, Mutesa L. Array-CGH analysis in Rwandan patients presenting development delay/intellectual disability with multiple congenital anomalies. BMC MEDICAL GENETICS 2014; 15:79. [PMID: 25016475 PMCID: PMC4123504 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2350-15-79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Background Array-CGH is considered as the first-tier investigation used to identify copy number variations. Right now, there is no available data about the genetic etiology of patients with development delay/intellectual disability and congenital malformation in East Africa. Methods Array comparative genomic hybridization was performed in 50 Rwandan patients with development delay/intellectual disability and multiple congenital abnormalities, using the Agilent’s 180 K microarray platform. Results Fourteen patients (28%) had a global development delay whereas 36 (72%) patients presented intellectual disability. All patients presented multiple congenital abnormalities. Clinically significant copy number variations were found in 13 patients (26%). Size of CNVs ranged from 0,9 Mb to 34 Mb. Six patients had CNVs associated with known syndromes, whereas 7 patients presented rare genomic imbalances. Conclusion This study showed that CNVs are present in African population and show the importance to implement genetic testing in East-African countries.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Leon Mutesa
- Center for Medical Genetics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of Rwanda, Huye, Rwanda.
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13
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Glutamatergic candidate genes in autism spectrum disorder: an overview. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2014; 121:1081-106. [PMID: 24493018 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-014-1161-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2013] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are neurodevelopmental disorders with early onset in childhood. Most of the risk for ASD can be explained by genetic variants that act in interaction with biological environmental risk factors. However, the architecture of the genetic components is still unclear. Genetic studies and subsequent systems biological approaches described converging functional effects of identified genes towards pathways relevant for neuronal signalling. Mouse models suggest an aberrant synaptic plasticity at the neuropathological level, which is believed to be conferred by dysregulation of long-term potentiation or depression of neuronal connections. A central pathway regulating these mechanisms is glutamatergic signalling. Here, we hypothesized that susceptibility genes for ASD are enriched for components of this pathway. To further understand the impact of ASD risk genes on the glutamatergic pathway, we performed a systematic review using the literature database "pubmed" and the "AutismKB" knowledgebase. We provide an overview of the glutamatergic system in typical brain function and development, and summarize findings from linkage, association, copy number variants, and sequencing studies in ASD to provide a comprehensive picture of the glutamatergic landscape of ASD genetics. Genetic variants associated with ASD were enriched in glutamatergic pathways, affecting receptor signalling, metabolism and transport. Furthermore, in genetically modified mouse models for ASD, pharmacological compounds acting on ionotropic or metabotropic receptor activity are able to rescue ASD reminscent phenotypes. We conclude that glutamatergic genetic risk factors for ASD show a complex pattern and further studies are needed to fully understand its mechanisms, before translation of findings into clinical applications and individualized treatment approaches will be possible.
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14
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Zafeiriou DI, Ververi A, Dafoulis V, Kalyva E, Vargiami E. Autism spectrum disorders: the quest for genetic syndromes. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2013; 162B:327-66. [PMID: 23650212 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.32152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are a heterogeneous group of neurodevelopmental disabilities with various etiologies, but with a heritability estimate of more than 90%. Although the strong correlation between autism and genetic factors has been long established, the exact genetic background of ASD remains unclear. A number of genetic syndromes manifest ASD at higher than expected frequencies compared to the general population. These syndromes account for more than 10% of all ASD cases and include tuberous sclerosis, fragile X, Down, neurofibromatosis, Angelman, Prader-Willi, Williams, Duchenne, etc. Clinicians are increasingly required to recognize genetic disorders in individuals with ASD, in terms of providing proper care and prognosis to the patient, as well as genetic counseling to the family. Vice versa, it is equally essential to identify ASD in patients with genetic syndromes, in order to ensure correct management and appropriate educational placement. During investigation of genetic syndromes, a number of issues emerge: impact of intellectual disability in ASD diagnoses, identification of autistic subphenotypes and differences from idiopathic autism, validity of assessment tools designed for idiopathic autism, possible mechanisms for the association with ASD, etc. Findings from the study of genetic syndromes are incorporated into the ongoing research on autism etiology and pathogenesis; different syndromes converge upon common biological backgrounds (such as disrupted molecular pathways and brain circuitries), which probably account for their comorbidity with autism. This review paper critically examines the prevalence and characteristics of the main genetic syndromes, as well as the possible mechanisms for their association with ASD.
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15
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Mosrati MA, Schrauwen I, Kamoun H, Charfeddine I, Fransen E, Ghorbel A, Van Camp G, Masmoudi S. Genome wide analysis in a family with sensorineural hearing loss, autism and mental retardation. Gene 2012; 510:102-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2012.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2012] [Accepted: 09/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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16
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Genotype-phenotype association studies of chromosome 8p inverted duplication deletion syndrome. Behav Genet 2011; 41:373-80. [PMID: 21259039 DOI: 10.1007/s10519-011-9447-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2010] [Accepted: 01/07/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Individuals diagnosed with chromosome 8p inverted duplication deletion (invdupdel(8p)) manifest a wide range of clinical features and cognitive impairment. The purpose of this study is to employ array CGH technology to define more precisely the cytogenetic breakpoints and regions of copy number variation found in several individuals with invdupdel(8p), and compare these results with their neuropsychological characteristics. We examined the cognitive-behavioral features of two male and two female children, ages 3-15 years, with invdupdel(8p). We noted cognitive deficits that ranged from mild to severe, and adaptive behavior composites that ranged from significantly to substantially lower than adequate levels. CARS scores, a measure of autistic behavior, identified three children with autism or autistic-like features. Three of the four children exhibited attention deficits and hyperactivity consistent with a DSM-IV-TR diagnosis of ADHD. One child showed extreme emotional lability. Interestingly, intellectual disability was not correlated with deletion size, nor was the deletion location associated with the autistic phenotype. On the other hand, the duplication length in 8p21.1/8p22 was associated with cognitive deficit. In addition, a small locus of over-expression in 8p21.3 was common for all three participants diagnosed as autistic. A limitation of the study is its small sample size. Further analyses of the deleted and over-expressed regions are needed to ascertain the genes involved in cognitive function and, possibly, autism.
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17
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Tabarés-Seisdedos R, Rubenstein JLR. Chromosome 8p as a potential hub for developmental neuropsychiatric disorders: implications for schizophrenia, autism and cancer. Mol Psychiatry 2009; 14:563-89. [PMID: 19204725 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2009.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Defects in genetic and developmental processes are thought to contribute susceptibility to autism and schizophrenia. Presumably, owing to etiological complexity identifying susceptibility genes and abnormalities in the development has been difficult. However, the importance of genes within chromosomal 8p region for neuropsychiatric disorders and cancer is well established. There are 484 annotated genes located on 8p; many are most likely oncogenes and tumor-suppressor genes. Molecular genetics and developmental studies have identified 21 genes in this region (ADRA1A, ARHGEF10, CHRNA2, CHRNA6, CHRNB3, DKK4, DPYSL2, EGR3, FGF17, FGF20, FGFR1, FZD3, LDL, NAT2, NEF3, NRG1, PCM1, PLAT, PPP3CC, SFRP1 and VMAT1/SLC18A1) that are most likely to contribute to neuropsychiatric disorders (schizophrenia, autism, bipolar disorder and depression), neurodegenerative disorders (Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease) and cancer. Furthermore, at least seven nonprotein-coding RNAs (microRNAs) are located at 8p. Structural variants on 8p, such as copy number variants, microdeletions or microduplications, might also contribute to autism, schizophrenia and other human diseases including cancer. In this review, we consider the current state of evidence from cytogenetic, linkage, association, gene expression and endophenotyping studies for the role of these 8p genes in neuropsychiatric disease. We also describe how a mutation in an 8p gene (Fgf17) results in a mouse with deficits in specific components of social behavior and a reduction in its dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. We finish by discussing the biological connections of 8p with respect to neuropsychiatric disorders and cancer, despite the shortcomings of this evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Tabarés-Seisdedos
- Teaching Unit of Psychiatry and Psychological Medicine, Department of Medicine, CIBER-SAM, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain.
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18
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Glancy M, Barnicoat A, Vijeratnam R, de Souza S, Gilmore J, Huang S, Maloney VK, Thomas NS, Bunyan DJ, Jackson A, Barber JCK. Transmitted duplication of 8p23.1-8p23.2 associated with speech delay, autism and learning difficulties. Eur J Hum Genet 2008; 17:37-43. [PMID: 18716609 DOI: 10.1038/ejhg.2008.133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Duplications of distal 8p with and without significant clinical phenotypes have been reported and are often associated with an unusual degree of structural complexity. Here, we present a duplication of 8p23.1-8p23.2 ascertained in a child with speech delay and a diagnosis of ICD-10 autism. The same duplication was found in his mother who had epilepsy and learning problems. A combination of cytogenetic, FISH, microsatellite, MLPA and oaCGH analysis was used to show that the duplication extended over a minimum of 6.8 Mb between 3 539 893 and 10 323 426 bp. This interval contains 32 novel and 41 known genes, of which only microcephalin (MCPH1) is a plausible candidate gene for autism at present. The distal breakpoint of the duplicated region interrupts the CSMD1 gene in 8p23.2 and the medial breakpoint lies between the MSRA and RP1L1 genes in 8p23.1.An interchromosomal insertion between a normal and polymorphically inverted chromosome 8 is proposed to explain the origin of this duplication. Further mapped imbalances of distal 8p are needed to determine whether the autistic component of the phenotype in this family results from the cumulative imbalance of many genes or dosage imbalance of an individual susceptibility gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Glancy
- North East London Regional Cytogenetics Laboratory, Great Ormond Street Hospital NHS Trust, London, UK.
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19
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Ozgen HM, Staal WG, Barber JC, de Jonge MV, Eleveld MJ, Beemer FA, Hochstenbach R, Poot M. A novel 6.14 Mb duplication of chromosome 8p21 in a patient with autism and self mutilation. J Autism Dev Disord 2008; 39:322-9. [PMID: 18696223 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-008-0627-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2008] [Accepted: 07/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders with a strong genetic etiology. Cytogenetic abnormalities have been detected in 5-10% of the patients with autism. In this study, we present the clinical, cytogenetic and array-comparative genomic hybridization (array-CGH) evaluation of a 13-year-old male with severe developmental delay, facial dysmorphic features, autism and self mutilation. The patient was found to carry a de novo duplication of chromosome region 8p21 of minimally 6.14 and maximally 6.58 Mb as ascertained by bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-based array-CGH. Hitherto, only a few patients with autism with cytogenetically visible duplications involving the chromosome 8p21 region have been described, but the extent of these duplications has not been determined at the molecular level. This represents the smallest rearrangement of chromosomal region 8p21 as yet found in a patient with autism. For 11 of the 36 genes with known functions located within this duplication clear transcription in the brain was found. Of those the STMN4 and DPYSL2 genes are the most likely candidate genes to be involved in neuronal development, and, if altered in gene-dosage, in the autistic phenotype of our patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heval M Ozgen
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht, HP B01.201, GA, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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20
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Engel BC, Podsakoff GM, Ireland JL, Smogorzewska EM, Carbonaro DA, Wilson K, Shah A, Kapoor N, Sweeney M, Borchert M, Crooks GM, Weinberg KI, Parkman R, Rosenblatt HM, Wu SQ, Hershfield MS, Candotti F, Kohn DB. Prolonged pancytopenia in a gene therapy patient with ADA-deficient SCID and trisomy 8 mosaicism: a case report. Blood 2006; 109:503-6. [PMID: 16973956 PMCID: PMC1785101 DOI: 10.1182/blood-2006-06-031476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A patient with adenosine deaminase-deficient severe combined immune deficiency (ADA-SCID) was enrolled in a study of retroviral-mediated ADA gene transfer to bone marrow hematopoietic stem cells. After the discontinuation of ADA enzyme replacement, busulfan (75 mg/m2) was administered for bone marrow cytoreduction, followed by infusion of autologous, gene-modified CD34+ cells. The expected myelosuppression developed after busulfan but then persisted, necessitating the administration of untransduced autologous bone marrow back-up at day 40. Because of sustained pancytopenia and negligible gene marking, diagnostic bone marrow biopsy and aspirate were performed at day 88. Analyses revealed hypocellular marrow and, unexpectedly, evidence of trisomy 8 in 21.6% of cells. Trisomy 8 mosaicism (T8M) was subsequently diagnosed by retrospective analysis of a pretreatment marrow sample that might have caused the lack of hematopoietic reconstitution. The confounding effects of this preexisting marrow cytogenetic abnormality on the response to gene transfer highlights another challenge of gene therapy with the use of autologous hematopoietic stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Kathy Wilson
- Division of Research Immunology/Bone Marrow Transplantation
| | - Ami Shah
- Division of Research Immunology/Bone Marrow Transplantation
| | - Neena Kapoor
- Division of Research Immunology/Bone Marrow Transplantation
| | | | - Mark Borchert
- Division of Research Immunology/Bone Marrow Transplantation
| | - Gay M. Crooks
- Division of Research Immunology/Bone Marrow Transplantation
| | | | | | | | - Shi-Qi Wu
- Department of Pathology, Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, CA
| | | | - Fabio Candotti
- National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD
| | - Donald B. Kohn
- Division of Research Immunology/Bone Marrow Transplantation
- Correspondence: Donald B. Kohn,
Childrens Hospital Los Angeles, Division of Research Immunology/Bone Marrow Transplantation, 4650 W Sunset Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90027; e-mail:
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