Parent–Child Relations, Conduct Problems and Cigarette Use in Adolescence: Examining the Role of Genetic and Environmental Factors on Patterns of Behavior

Social neural sensitivity as a susceptibility marker to family context in predicting adolescent externalizing behavior

Adolescence represents a period of risk for developing patterns of risk-taking and conduct problems, and the quality of the family environment is one robust predictor of such externalizing behavior. However, family factors may not affect all youth uniformly, and individual differences in neurobiological susceptibility to the family context may moderate its influence. The current study investigated brain-based individual differences in social motivational processing as a susceptibility marker to family conflict in predicting externalizing behavior in early adolescent youth. 163 adolescents (M_age = 12.87 years) completed an fMRI scan during which they anticipated social rewards and social punishments. For adolescents with heightened ventral striatum and amygdala blood oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) response during the anticipation of social rewards and heightened ventral striatum BOLD response during the anticipation of social punishments, higher levels of family conflict were associated with greater externalizing behavior. BOLD response when anticipating both social rewards and punishments suggested increased susceptibility to maladaptive family contexts, highlighting the importance of considering adolescent social motivation in positive and negatively valenced contexts.

Common Liabilities in Internalizing Symptoms and Cigarette Use in Adolescence

INTRODUCTION

Substance use and mood disorders account for about 10% of the global burden of disease and, among adolescents, are a significant source of disability. The present study examined whether additive genetic or shared environmental factors influenced the covariance of internalizing symptoms and cigarette use during adolescence when both of these problems begin to increase.

AIMS AND METHODS

We used data (n = 1230 pairs of twins) from the Virginia Twin Study of Adolescent Behavioral Development (mean age = 15.3) to decompose the variance of internalizing symptoms, cigarette initiation, and quantity of cigarettes smoked in a variance decomposition model that included a beta coefficient to allow for estimates of cigarette initiation to influence quantity of cigarettes smoked.

RESULTS

In biometric models we were able to equate all parameter estimates by sex. After identifying the best fitting model, parameter estimates were calculated and the significance of overlapping paths between internalizing symptoms and cigarette initiation were tested. After accounting for the genetic architecture of cigarette initiation and quantity smoked, the covariance between internalizing symptoms and cigarette use was accounted for by sex-specific shared and unique environmental factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Among adolescents, the overlap in risk factors between internalizing symptoms and cigarette use is because of non-genetic, environmental factors. Further exploration of the environmental sources of variance involved in the onset of adolescents internalizing symptoms and cigarette use is warranted.

IMPLICATIONS

We find that during adolescence common environmental factors influence the association between internalizing symptoms and cigarette use. Correlated vulnerabilities because of environmental sources between internalizing and cigarette use may be open to intervention and likely will influence the progression of internalizing and cigarette use.

Hearing the unheard voice-puberty experiences of young Pakistani men: A qualitative study

INTRODUCTION

Puberty experiences of male adolescents can have significant impacts on physical and psychological health outcomes. This qualitative study explored the puberty experiences of young males in Pakistan, as there are limited accounts of what shapes these puberty experiences, especially for adolescent males living in a restrictive culture.

METHODS

Twenty-two young Pakistani men (aged 18-21 years) from two urban sites in Karachi participated in individual face-to-face (n=19) and Skype (n=3) interviews. Qualitative thematic analysis was conducted using an inductive approach to identity and examine the patterns emerging from the data.

RESULTS

Participants described puberty as a challenging phase for which they were unprepared with a combination of various socio-cultural factors exposing them to negative impacts. As a result, young men expressed feelings of anxiety, embarrassment and isolation. Societal and gender norms around masculinity, sexuality and the roles and responsibilities of young men had a significant impact on how participants experienced puberty. While negative reactions towards puberty were dominant, participants described adopting coping strategies (e.g. social support) to help them deal with negative experiences.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight the significance of culturally appropriate puberty education and various facilitating factors that may improve the puberty experiences for future young men. While extending current literature, this study also identifies key factors that could inform the development of health promotion programmes, which may aid adolescent males' puberty transition and positively influence their long-term health, well-being and identity.

Parental well-being, couple relationship quality, and children's behavioral problems in the first 2 years of life

Adverse effects of early exposure to parental mood disturbance on child adjustment have been documented for both mothers and fathers, but are rarely examined in tandem. Other under-researched questions include effects of changes over time in parental well-being, similarities and contrasts between effects of parental mood disturbance on children's internalizing versus externalizing problems, and potential mediating effects of couple relationship quality. The current study involved 438 couples who reported symptoms of depression and anxiety at each of four time points (i.e., last trimester of pregnancy and 4, 14, and 24 months postbirth). Mothers and fathers also rated their couple relationship quality and their child's socioemotional adjustment at 14 months, as well as internalizing and externalizing problems at 24 months. Latent growth models indicated direct effects of (a) maternal prenatal well-being on externalizing problems at 24 months, and (b) paternal prenatal well-being on socioemotional problems at 14 months. Internalizing symptoms at 24 months showed only indirect associations with parental well-being, with couple relationship quality playing a mediating role. Our findings highlight the importance of prenatal exposure to parental mood disturbance and demonstrate that, even in a low-risk sample, poor couple relationship quality explains the intergenerational stability of internalizing problems.

Did I Inherit My Moral Compass? Examining Socialization and Evocative Mechanisms for Virtuous Character Development

Virtuous character development in children is correlated with parenting behavior, but the role of genetic influences in this association has not been examined. Using a longitudinal twin/sibling study (N = 720; Time 1 (T1) Mage = 12-14 years, Time 3 (T3) Mage = 25-27 years), the current report examines associations among parental negativity/positivity and offspring responsibility during adolescence, and subsequent young adult conscientiousness. Findings indicate that associations among parental negativity and offspring virtuous character during adolescence and young adulthood are due primarily to heritable influences. In contrast, the association between concurrent parental positivity and adolescent responsibility was due primarily to heritable and shared environmental influences. These findings underscore the contributions of heritable influences to the associations between parenting and virtuous character that have previously been assumed to be only environmentally influenced, emphasizing the complexity of mechanisms involved in the development of virtuous character.

Harsh Parenting, Deviant Peers, Adolescent Risky Behavior: Understanding the Meditational Effect of Attitudes and Intentions

Although research supports the influence of parents and peers on adolescent risky behavior, less is known about mechanisms proposed to explain this relation. This study examined the influence of adolescent attitudes and intentions about such behaviors. Prospective, longitudinal data came from rural youth who participated throughout adolescence (n= 451). Observed harsh parenting and relationship with deviant peers was assessed in early adolescence, attitudes and intentions were measured during middle adolescence, and risky behavior was assessed in late adolescence. Results indicated that parenting and deviant peers was related to engagement in tobacco use, alcohol use, and risky sexual behaviors. Moreover, attitudes and intentions mediated this relationship even after parent use and adolescent early involvement in these behaviors were taken into account.

Gene-environment interplay between parent-child relationship problems and externalizing disorders in adolescence and young adulthood

BACKGROUND

Previous studies have shown that genetic risk for externalizing (EXT) disorders is greater in the context of adverse family environments during adolescence, but it is unclear whether these effects are long lasting. The current study evaluated developmental changes in gene-environment interplay in the concurrent and prospective associations between parent-child relationship problems and EXT at ages 18 and 25 years.

METHOD

The sample included 1382 twin pairs (48% male) from the Minnesota Twin Family Study, participating in assessments at ages 18 years (mean = 17.8, s.d. = 0.69 years) and 25 years (mean = 25.0, s.d. = 0.90 years). Perceptions of parent-child relationship problems were assessed using questionnaires. Structured interviews were used to assess symptoms of adult antisocial behavior and nicotine, alcohol and illicit drug dependence.

RESULTS

We detected a gene-environment interaction at age 18 years, such that the genetic influence on EXT was greater in the context of more parent-child relationship problems. This moderation effect was not present at age 25 years, nor did parent-relationship problems at age 18 years moderate genetic influence on EXT at age 25 years. Rather, common genetic influences accounted for this longitudinal association.

CONCLUSIONS

Gene-environment interaction evident in the relationship between adolescent parent-child relationship problems and EXT is both proximal and developmentally limited. Common genetic influence, rather than a gene-environment interaction, accounts for the long-term association between parent-child relationship problems at age 18 years and EXT at age 25 years. These results are consistent with a relatively pervasive importance of gene-environmental correlation in the transition from late adolescence to young adulthood.

Parent-child relationships, parental psychological control, and aggression: maternal and paternal relationships

Few studies have examined both maternal and paternal parenting practices in the prediction of child outcomes despite evidence that underscores the salience of fathers throughout their children's development. This study examined the role of the quality of mother-child and father-child relationships in buffering the influence of ineffective parenting practices on subsequent adolescent aggression. Measures of parental psychological control, the quality of the parent-child relationship, and youth aggressive behavior were completed by 163 (49 % female) mostly White and Asian adolescents and their parents during the eighth and ninth grades. Paternal psychological control predicted aggression when adolescents perceived low-quality relationships with their mothers. Similarly, maternal psychological control predicted aggression when adolescents perceived low-quality relationships with their fathers. Maternal psychological control was also associated with lower levels of aggression among adolescent males who reported a high-quality relationship with their father. These findings indicate that, when one parent exerts psychological control, the low-quality relationship the adolescent shares with the opposite gender parent increases risk for adolescent aggression. The findings also suggest that, as mothers exert psychological control, the high-quality parent-child relationship a son shares with his father decreases risk for adolescent aggression.

Overview of Behavioral Genetics Research for Family Researchers

This article provides an overview of the methods, assumptions, and key findings of behavioral genetics methodology for family researchers with a limited background. We discuss how family researchers can utilize and contribute to the behavioral genetics field, particularly in terms of conducting research that seeks to explain shared environmental effects. This can be done, in part, by theoretically controlling for genetic confounds in research that seeks to determine cause-and-effect relationships among family variables and individual outcomes. Gene-environment correlation and interaction are especially promising areas for the family researcher to address. Given the methodological advancements in the field, we also briefly comment on new methods in molecular genetics for studying psychological mental health disorders.

A systematic review of the relationships between family functioning, pubertal timing and adolescent substance use

AIMS

Experiences linked to poor family functioning and pubertal timing have each been associated with increased risk of substance misuse in adolescence. However, it remains unclear to what extent family functioning and pubertal timing combine to put adolescents at particular risk.

METHOD

A systematic review was planned, undertaken and reported according to the 27 items of the PRISMA statement. Databases World of Knowledge, PsycINFO and PubMed were searched. Fifty-eight papers were retained and are discussed in this review after screening titles, abstracts and full papers against pre-established exclusion criteria.

RESULTS

The combination of off-time pubertal timing and poor parent-adolescent relationship quality has been related to higher levels of substance use. However, this is an under-studied area of research and the evidence is less strong for boys than girls.

CONCLUSIONS

Adolescents experiencing both poor parent-adolescent relationship quality and off-time pubertal timing may represent a high-risk group that can benefit from approaches aimed at reducing risk of substance misuse.

The Moderating Effects of Pubertal Timing on the Longitudinal Associations Between Parent-Child Relationship Quality and Adolescent Substance Use

This prospective, longitudinal study investigated the moderating role of pubertal timing on reciprocal links between adolescent appraisals of parent-child relationship quality and girls' (N=1335) and boys' (N=1203) cigarette and alcohol use across a twelve-month period. Reciprocal effects were found between parent-child relations and on-time maturing boys and girls' cigarette and alcohol use, after estimating stability in these constructs across time. Parent-child relationship quality was associated with increased alcohol use twelve months later for early maturing girls. Cigarette and alcohol use were associated with increased problems in the parent-child relationship for late maturing girls. No off-time effects were observed for off-time maturing boys in the pathways between parent-child relationship quality and substance use. Pubertal timing moderated the pathway linking parent-child relationship quality with cigarette use one year later such that the association was stronger for late maturing girls compared to early and on-time maturing girls. The findings indicate interplay between the psychosocial aspects of maturation, family relationships and adolescent substance use and highlight possible gender-specific influences.

Parent-child hostility and child ADHD symptoms: a genetically sensitive and longitudinal analysis

BACKGROUND

Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) report higher rates of conflict within the family and more negative parent-child relationships. This study aimed to test whether negative parent-child relationships have a risk effect on ADHD symptoms using two complementary designs.

METHOD

The first sample included 886 twin pairs, aged 11-17 years, derived from a population-based twin study. The second sample was derived from a longitudinal community study and included 282 parents and their children, aged 11-14 years. Questionnaires were used to assess ADHD symptoms and hostility in the mother-child and father-child relationship. Bivariate genetic analysis was used to test the contribution of genetic and environmental factors to the association between parent-child hostility and ADHD symptoms in the twin sample. Cross-lagged and reciprocal effects models were used to test for a bidirectional relationship between parent-child hostility and ADHD symptoms over time in the longitudinal study.

RESULTS

For boys, both genetic and environmental factors contributed to the link between mother-son hostility and ADHD symptoms, but genetic factors alone explained the association between father-son hostility and ADHD symptoms. For girls, the association between ADHD symptoms and mother-daughter hostility as well as father-child hostility was attributed to genetic factors alone. The longitudinal study provided evidence of boys' ADHD symptoms impacting upon mother-son hostility both within and across time. There were no effects in the opposite direction.

CONCLUSIONS

A causal hypothesis of family relations influencing ADHD symptoms was not supported. Boys' ADHD symptoms appear to have an environmentally mediated impact upon mother-son hostility.