Neuroprotective properties of aucubin in diabetic rats and diabetic encephalopathy rats

Rehmannia glutinosa DC.-Lilium lancifolium Thunb. in the treatment of depression: a comprehensive review and perspectives

Background

In recent years, the incidence of depression, recognized as a serious psychological disorder, has escalated rapidly. Rehmannia glutinosa DC. (Scrophulariaceae; Rehmanniae Radix, Crude drug) and Lilium lancifolium Thunb. (Liliaceae; Lilii bulbus, Crude drug) constitute a classic anti-depressant combination, exhibiting pharmacological effects that include anti-depressive, anti-anxiety, and anti-inflammatory properties. Current clinical studies have demonstrated that Baihe Dihuang Decoction, a traditional Chinese herbal compound, is effective in treating depression. However, the majority of scholars have predominantly examined Rehmannia glutinosa and Lilium in isolation, and a comprehensive elucidation of their principal active metabolites and pharmacological mechanisms remains lacking.

Methods

A comprehensive literature search was conducted as of 29 September 2024, utilizing databases such as PubMed, CNKI, Wanfang Data, Baidu Scholar, and Google Scholar. Additionally, classical texts on Chinese herbal medicine, the Chinese Pharmacopoeia, as well as doctoral and master's theses, were included in the collected materials. The search employed specific terms including "R. glutinosa," "Lilium," "Baihe Dihuang decoction," "application of Baihe Dihuang decoction," "pathogenesis of depression," and "pharmacological action and mechanism of depression.

Results

This paper reviewed the traditional applications and dosages of the R. glutinosa-Lilium as documented in Chinese medical classics, thereby establishing a foundation for the contemporary development and clinical application of the classical formula Baihe Dihuang Decoction. Additionally, recent years have seen a comprehensive review of the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of R. glutinosa-Lilium and its principal metabolites in the context of depression.

Conclusion

This paper has reviewed the active metabolites of R. glutinosa-Lilium and demonstrated its efficacy in the treatment of depression, as well as its role in modulating the underlying mechanisms of the disorder. The findings aim to serve as a reference for further research into the mechanisms of depression, its clinical applications, and the development of novel therapeutic agents.

Neurotrophic Natural Products

Neurotrophins (NGF, BDNF, NT3, NT4) can decrease cell death, induce differentiation, as well as sustain the structure and function of neurons, which make them promising therapeutic agents for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. However, neurotrophins have not been very effective in clinical trials mostly because they cannot pass through the blood-brain barrier owing to being high-molecular-weight proteins. Thus, neurotrophin-mimic small molecules, which stimulate the synthesis of endogenous neurotrophins or enhance neurotrophic actions, may serve as promising alternatives to neurotrophins. Small-molecular-weight natural products, which have been used in dietary functional foods or in traditional medicines over the course of human history, have a great potential for the development of new therapeutic agents against neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. In this contribution, a variety of natural products possessing neurotrophic properties such as neurogenesis, neurite outgrowth promotion (neuritogenesis), and neuroprotection are described, and a focus is made on the chemistry and biology of several neurotrophic natural products.

The activation of spliced X-box binding protein 1 by isorhynchophylline therapy improves diabetic encephalopathy

The primary symptom of diabetic encephalopathy (DE), a kind of central diabetic neuropathy caused by diabetes mellitus (DM), is cognitive impairment. In addition, the tetracyclic oxindole alkaloid isorhynchophylline (IRN) helps lessen cognitive impairment. However, it is still unclear how IRN affects DM and DE and what mechanisms are involved. The effectiveness of IRN on brain insulin resistance was carefully examined in this work, both in vitro and in vivo. We found that IRN accelerates spliced form of X-box binding protein 1 (sXBP1) translocation into the nucleus under high glucose conditions in vitro. IRN also facilitates the nuclear association of pCREB with sXBP1 and the binding of regulatory subunits of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) p85α or p85β with XBP1 to restore high glucose impairment. Also, IRN treatment improves high glucose-mediated impairment of insulin signaling, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and pyroptosis/apoptosis by depending on sXBP1 in vitro. In vivo studies suggested that IRN attenuates cognitive impairment, ameliorating peripheral insulin resistance, activating insulin signaling, inactivating activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6) and C/EBP homology protein (CHOP), and mitigating pyroptosis/apoptosis by stimulation of sXBP1 nuclear translocation in the brain. In summary, these data indicate that IRN contributes to maintaining insulin homeostasis by activating sXBP1 in the brain. Thus, IRN is a potent antidiabetic agent as well as an sXBP1 activator that has promising potential for the prevention or treatment of DE.

Aucubin alleviates methotrexate-induced enteritis in rats by inducing autophagy

One of the toxic side effects of methotrexate (MTX) is enteritis. Aucubin, an iridoid glycoside derived from traditional medicinal herbs, has been proven to have anti-inflammation, anti-apoptosis and anti-oxidation properties. This work explored the effect and mechanism of aucubin in treating MTX-induced enteritis in a rat model. Two doses of aucubin (5 and 10 mg/kg) were adopted for the assessment of its pharmacological activity. We observed that in rats with MTX-induced enteritis, the body weight and small intestinal weight decreased. The intestine barrier was injured, as reflected by pathological examinations and an increase in D-lactate and diamine oxidase concentration in serum. Intestinal inflammation was shown by the observation of macrophages in the intestine and the concentrations of inflammatory cytokines tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in serum. The NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome was shown to be activated by the enhancement of NLRP3, cleaved-caspase 1, IL-18 and IL-1β. Moreover, autophagy was reflected by transmission electron microscopy as slightly induced, along with changes in autophagy-related markers microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) and Beclin1. Remarkably, aucubin treatment attenuated the MTX-induced disease activity index increase, intestinal damage, inflammatory response and NLRP3 inflammasome activation, but provoked autophagy. Rapamycin, an autophagy activator, showed similar therapeutic effects to aucubin on MTX-induced enteritis. However, 3-methyladenine, an autophagy inhibitor, reversed the protective effects of aucubin. These findings prompted the hypothesis that aucubin alleviates MTX-induced enteritis by aggravating autophagy. This study might provide evidence for further investigation on the therapeutic role of aucubin in MTX-resulted enteritis.

Characteristics, Isolation Methods, and Biological Properties of Aucubin

Aucubin is an iridoid glycoside widely spread in the families Cornaceae, Garryaceae, Orobanchaceae, Globulariaceae, Eucommiaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Plantaginaceae, and Rubiaceae. This review is intended to provide data on the physicochemical characteristics, isolation methods, and biological activities of aucubin and its producing plants. Aucubin is unstable and can be deglycosylated into its aglycone, aucubigenin. Various chromatographic methods (column chromatography, vacuum liquid chromatography, medium pressure liquid chromatography, and high-performance liquid chromatography) have been used together to isolate aucubin, mainly with the stationary phase C-18 and the mobile phase water-methanol solution made in gradients. In vitro and in vivo studies reveal that aucubin has a wide range of activities, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anxiolytic and antidepressant, antidiabetic, antifibrotic, antimicrobial, anticancer, antihyperlipidemic, gastroprotective, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, retinoprotective, neuroprotective, osteoprotective, and renoprotective. Even though aucubin has been extensively investigated, further research in humans is urgently needed primarily to substantiate the clinical evidence. Moreover, extensive studies on its drug delivery systems will help maximize efficacy and minimize side effects.

Aucubin protects mouse cochlear hair cells from cisplatin-induced ototoxicity via activation of the PI3K/AKT/STAT3 pathway

Cisplatin is commonly used to treat cancers and is associated with a significant risk of irreversible sensorineural hearing loss. However, no effective preventive strategies are available for cisplatin-induced HL. Therefore, significant efforts have been made to discover new drugs protecting cochlear hair cells from cisplatin-induced damage. We found that a new phytochemical, aucubin, attenuated cisplatin-induced apoptosis, the production of reactive oxygen species, and mitochondrial dysfunction in House Ear Institute Organ of Corti 1 cells and cochlear hair cells. Moreover, aucubin attenuated cisplatin-induced sensorineural hearing loss and hair cells loss in vivo. Furthermore, RNA sequencing analysis revealed that the otoprotective effects of aucubin were mainly mediated by increased STAT3 phosphorylation via the PI3K/AKT pathway. Inhibition of the STAT3 signaling pathway with the inhibitor S3I-201 or siRNA disrupted the protective effects of aucubin on cisplatin-induced apoptosis. In conclusion, we identified an otoprotective effect of aucubin. Therefore, aucubin could be used to prevent cisplatin-induced ototoxicity.

Research progress on the protective effects of aucubin in neurological diseases

CONTEXT

Aucubin (AU), an iridoid glycoside that is one of the active constituents of Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. (EUO) (Eucommiaceae), a traditional Chinese medicine, has been extensively studied in the management of neurological diseases (NDs). However, a comprehensive review of its effects and mechanisms in this regard is currently not available.

OBJECTIVE

To compile the protective effects and mechanisms of AU in NDs and provide a basis for further research.

METHODS

We used 'aucubin' as the 'All Fields' or 'MeSH' in PubMed, Web of Science and China National Knowledge Infrastructure without any limitation to search all relevant articles as comprehensively as possible; we selected the articles on AU treatment of NDs for summary.

RESULTS

Studies reviewed herein reported that AU improved the symptoms or prognosis of Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, intracerebral haemorrhage, diabetic encephalopathy, epilepsy, anxiety and depression, and traumatic brain injury. The pharmacological mechanisms involved in repairing neuronal loss were postulated to include increasing γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) content in the synapse, promoting differentiation of neural precursor cells into GABAergic neurons, providing antioxidant and anti-neuroinflammation activities, as well as enhancing autophagy and anti-apoptotic actions.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The protective effects of AU on some NDs have been confirmed. According to the pharmacological effects, AU is also highly likely to have protective effects on other NDs, which can be realized by further in vivo and in vitro basic research, and clinical trials. In the future, AU may be used for clinical prevention or treatment of patients with neurological diseases.

Aucubin supplementation alleviate diabetes induced-disruption of blood-testis barrier and testicular damage via stabilizing cell junction integrity

Disruption of blood-testis barrier (BTB) was a crucial pathological feature of diabetes induced-testicular injury at early phase. Aucubin (AU), a main active component in Eucommiae Cortex, has drawn attention for its benefits against male reproductive system disease. The current study was aimed at investigating the protective role of AU and exploring the underlying mechanism in diabetic model. A murine model of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) was induced by high-fat diet (HFD) combined with streptozocin (STZ). Testicular weight index and morphology, sperm quality, integrity of BTB and protein levels were analyzed. The underlying mechanism of the protective effect of AU was further explored in Sertoli cells (SCs) cultured with high glucose (HG). Our results showed AU inhibited testicular structural destruction, restored disruption of BTB and improved abnormal spermatogenic function in diabetic mice. Consistent with in vivo results, HG induced decreased transcellular resistance and increased permeability in SCs monolayers, while AU exposure reverses this trend. Meanwhile, reduced expression of Zonula occludin-1(ZO-1) and Connexin43(Cx43) in testicular tissue diabetic mice and HG-induced SCs was prominently reversed via AU treatment. Mechanistic studies suggested a high affinity interaction between AU and c-Src protein was identified based on molecular docking, and the activation of c-Src was significantly inhibited in AU treatment. Furthermore, AU significantly increased the expression of Cx43 and ZO-1 proteins HG-induced SCs, which can be further enhanced in gene-silenced c-Src cells to some extent. Our results suggested that AU ameliorated disruption of BTB and spermatogenesis dysfunction in diabetic mice via inactivating c-Src to stabilize cell junction integrity.

Iridoid glycoside Aucubin protects against nonylphenol-induced testicular damage in male rats via modulation of steroidogenic and apoptotic signaling

Aucubin (AU) is one of the widespread compounds belonging to the group of iridoid glycosides, which possesses numerous beneficial properties. Nonylphenol (NP), is a synthetic environmental toxicant that has the potential to cause male infertility through excessive production of reactive oxygen species. In the current study, the remedial potential of Aucubin was assessed against NP-generated testicular damage in male rats. Animals were distributed into four groups and treated for 56 days in this study. Control-group (0.1% DMSO + food), NP group (100 µg/kg), NP + AU group (100 µg/kg + 5 mg/kg) and AU group (5 mg/kg). NP exposure significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the activity of antioxidant enzymes i.e., glutathione reductase, catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and total protein content (TPC), whereas the level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) was enhanced substantially (p < 0.05). Treatment with AU substantially (p < 0.05) recovered activities of antioxidant enzymes, TPC, ROS, and TBARS levels. Moreover, decrease in the levels of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), plasma testosterone, sperm count, motility, sperm membrane integrity, and the number of spermatocytes of different stages along with the level of steroidogenic enzymes i.e., 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17β-HSD), 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β-HSD), and B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) by NP administration were recovered to control values by AU treatment. However, AU mitigated the sperm abnormalities (head/midpiece/tail), the number of dead sperms, and proapoptotic proteins i.e., Bcl-2 associated X protein (Bax), caspase-9, and caspase-3 that were increased by NP. Besides, AU treatment recovered the NP-induced potential histopathological alterations in the testicular tissues such as the height of epithelium, seminiferous tubules diameter as well as the height of tunica propria. Overall, NP-induced toxicity was effectively recuperated by the AU administration. These results indicate that AU might be considered as a potential protective agent against testicular damage. The observed protection may be due to its antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory and androgenic potential.

Aucubin Exerts Anticancer Activity in Breast Cancer and Regulates Intestinal Microbiota

Aucubin, a natural compound isolated from herbal medicine, has been reported to possess multiple beneficial properties. In this study, we aimed to verify the anticancer effect of aucubin on breast cancer and investigate the effect of cancer on the intestinal flora and whether aucubin has a therapeutic effect on intestinal problems caused by cancer. We established the breast cancer model with mouse 4T1 cell line and BALB/c mice. Aucubin was given once a day by gavage for 14 days. The results showed that aucubin suppress the growth of tumor in vivo by inducing tumor cell apoptosis. The tumor suppression rate of aucubin could reach 51.31 ± 4.07%. Organ histopathology was evaluated by tissue staining, which demonstrated that aucubin could alleviate the organ inflammatory damage caused by breast cancer without visible side effects. Moreover, aucubin could increase the expression of colonic tight junction protein occluding and adjust the gut microbiome to normal level according to 16S rDNA high-throughput sequencing. Herein, our results provide evidence for developing aucubin as an alternative and safe therapeutic for breast cancer treatment.

Aucubin alleviates oxidative stress and inflammation via Nrf2-mediated signaling activity in experimental traumatic brain injury

Background

Aucubin (Au), an iridoid glycoside from natural plants, has antioxidative and anti-inflammatory bioactivities; however, its effects on a traumatic brain injury (TBI) model remain unknown. We explored the potential role of Au in an H₂O₂-induced oxidant damage in primary cortical neurons and weight-drop induced-TBI in a mouse model.

Methods

In vitro experiments, the various concentrations of Au (50 μg/ml, 100 μg/ml, or 200 μg/ml) were added in culture medium at 0 h and 6 h after neurons stimulated by H₂O₂ (100 μM). After exposed for 12 h, neurons were collected for western blot (WB), immunofluorescence, and M29,79-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) staining. In vivo experiments, Au (20 mg/kg or 40 mg/kg) was administrated intraperitoneally at 30 min, 12 h, 24 h, and 48 h after modeling. Brain water content, neurological deficits, and cognitive functions were measured at specific time, respectively. Cortical tissue around focal trauma was collected for WB, TdT-mediated dUTP Nick-End Labeling (TUNEL) staining, Nissl staining, quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (q-PCR), immunofluorescence/immunohistochemistry, and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) at 72 h after TBI. RNA interference experiments were performed to determine the effects of nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) on TBI mice with Au (40 mg/kg) treatment. Mice were intracerebroventricularly administrated with lentivirus at 72 h before TBI establishment. The cortex was obtained at 72 h after TBI and used for WB and q-PCR.

Results

Au enhanced the translocation of Nrf2 into the nucleus, activated antioxidant enzymes, suppressed excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and reduced cell apoptosis both in vitro and vivo experiments. In the mice model of TBI, Au markedly attenuated brain edema, histological damages, and improved neurological and cognitive deficits. Au significantly suppressed high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1)-mediated aseptic inflammation. Nrf2 knockdown in TBI mice blunted the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory neuroprotective effects of the Au.

Conclusions

Taken together, our data suggest that Au provides a neuroprotective effect in TBI mice model by inhibiting oxidative stress and inflammatory responses; the mechanisms involve triggering Nrf2-induced antioxidant system.

Medicinal plants and their isolated phytochemicals for the management of chemotherapy-induced neuropathy: therapeutic targets and clinical perspective

BACKGROUND

Chemotherapy, as one of the main approaches of cancer treatment, is accompanied with several adverse effects, including chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN). Since current methods to control the condition are not completely effective, new treatment options should be introduced. Medicinal plants can be suitable candidates to be assessed regarding their effects in CIPN. Current paper reviews the available preclinical and clinical studies on the efficacy of herbal medicines in CIPN.

METHODS

Electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane library were searched with the keywords "neuropathy" in the title/abstract and "plant", "extract", or "herb" in the whole text. Data were collected from inception until April 2018.

RESULTS

Plants such as chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.), sage (Salvia officinalis L.), cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia (L.) D. Don), and sweet flag (Acorus calamus L.) as well as phytochemicals like matrine, curcumin, and thioctic acid have demonstrated beneficial effects in animal models of CIPN via prevention of axonal degeneration, decrease in total calcium level, improvement of endogenous antioxidant defense mechanisms such as superoxide dismutase and reduced glutathione, and regulation of neural cell apoptosis, nuclear factor-ĸB, cyclooxygenase-2, and nitric oxide signaling. Also, five clinical trials have evaluated the effect of herbal products in patients with CIPN.

CONCLUSIONS

There are currently limited clinical evidence on medicinal plants for CIPN which shows the necessity of future mechanistic studies, as well as well-designed clinical trial for further confirmation of the safety and efficacy of herbal medicines in CIPN. Graphical abstract Schematic mechanisms of medicinal plants to prevent chemotherapy-induced neuropathy: NO: nitric oxide, TNF: tumor necrosis factor, PG: prostaglandin, NF-ĸB: nuclear factor kappa B, LPO: lipid peroxidation, ROS: reactive oxygen species, COX: cyclooxygenase, IL: interleukin, ERK: extracellular signal-related kinase, X: inhibition, ↓: induction.

Aucubin alleviates glial cell activation and preserves dopaminergic neurons in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced parkinsonian mice

Aucubin (AUC) is a major bioactive ingredient in Eucommia ulmoides, Plantain asiatica, and Aucuba japonica, and has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and neuroprotective effects. We explore the neuroprotective effects of AUC in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced parkinsonian mice. Mice were administered MPTP (30 mg/kg) daily for 5 days, followed by treatment with AUC for 7 days. Measurement of dopamine levels was performed by high-performance liquid chromatography and tyrosine hydroxylase expression was assessed by western blot. Our results showed that AUC treatment improved mobility in the pole descent test and the traction test, and reduced the loss of dopaminergic neurons in MPTP-induced parkinsonian mice. AUC treatment rescued the decreased dopamine and tyrosine hydroxylase levels in the striatum of parkinsonian mice. Furthermore, AUC treatment reduced both microglia and astrocyte activation in the substantia nigra of parkinsonian mice. These findings suggest that AUC exerts neuroprotective effects, in part by reducing inflammation and preserving dopaminergic neurons. Possible protection mechanisms involved in MPTP-induced parkinsonian mice need to be clarified further.

Aucubin Protects against Myocardial Infarction-Induced Cardiac Remodeling via nNOS/NO-Regulated Oxidative Stress

Whether aucubin could protect myocardial infarction- (MI-) induced cardiac remodeling is not clear. In this study, in a mouse model, cardiac remodeling was induced by left anterior descending coronary artery ligation surgery. Mice were intraperitoneally injected with aucubin (10 mg/kg) 3 days post-MI. Two weeks post-MI, mice in the aucubin treatment group showed decreased mortality, decreased infarct size, and improved cardiac function. Aucubin also decreased cardiac remodeling post-MI. Consistently, aucubin protected cardiomyocytes against hypoxic injury in vitro. Mechanistically, we found that aucubin inhibited the ASK1/JNK signaling. These effects were abolished by the JNK activator. Moreover, we found that the oxidative stress was attenuated in both in vivo aucubin-treated mice heart and in vitro-treated cardiomyocytes, which caused decreased thioredoxin (Trx) consumption, leading to ASK1 forming the inactive complex with Trx. Aucubin increased nNOS-derived NO production in vivo and vitro. The protective effects of aucubin were reversed by the NOS inhibitors L-NAME and L-VINO in vitro. Furthermore, nNOS knockout mice also reversed the protective effects of aucubin on cardiac remodeling. Taken together, aucubin protects against cardiac remodeling post-MI through activation of the nNOS/NO pathway, which subsequently attenuates the ROS production, increases Trx preservation, and leads to inhibition of the ASK1/JNK pathway.

Aucubin Promotes Differentiation of Neural Precursor Cells into GABAergic Neurons

Aucubin is a small compound naturally found in traditional medicinal herbs with primarily anti-inflammatory and protective effects. In the nervous system, aucubin is reported to be neuroprotective by enhancing neuronal survival and inhibiting apoptotic cell death in cultures and disease models. Our previous data, however, suggest that aucubin facilitates neurite elongation in cultured hippocampal neurons and axonal regrowth in regenerating sciatic nerves. Here, we investigated whether aucubin facilitates the differentiation of neural precursor cells (NPCs) into specific types of neurons. In NPCs cultured primarily from the rat embryonic hippocampus, aucubin significantly elevated the number of GAD65/67 immunoreactive cells and the expression of GAD65/67 proteins was upregulated dramatically by more than three-fold at relatively low concentrations of aucubin (0.01 µM to 10 µM). The expression of both NeuN and vGluT1 of NPCs, the markers for neurons and glutamatergic cells, respectively, and the number of vGluT1 immunoreactive cells also increased with higher concentrations of aucubin (1 µM and 10 µM), but the ratio of the increases was largely lower than GAD expression and GAD immunoreactive cells. The GABAergic differentiation of pax6-expressing late NPCs into GABA-producing cells was further supported in cortical NPCs primarily cultured from transgenic mouse brains, which express recombinant GFP under the control of pax6 promoter. The results suggest that aucubin can be developed as a therapeutic candidate for neurodegenerative disorders caused by the loss of inhibitory GABAergic neurons.

Application of electrospray ionization mass spectrometry fingerprinting associated with macroscopic and histological analysis for Plantago major herbal infusions quality control

The present study demonstrates the need to conduct an integrative quality control of teas marketed as Plantago major. In the present study, quality control checks were performed through macroscopic, microscopic and chemical analyses of commercial brands. Leaves with parts not allowed for consumption were found in all brands. Six brands showed histological similarity <50% with the authentic P. major. Eight brands demonstrated low chemical similarity (40 to 60%), indicating that they do not have the same compounds from the authentic P. major. All commercial samples are contaminated with aflatoxins, indicative of fungicide contamination and consequent degradation of phenolic compounds and reduction of antioxidant activity from the commercial samples. The difference in the present study is the integrative application of methods for success in the quality control of P. major, which can be applied to other species. Thus, more rigorous inspection actions in the production of teas to guarantee the therapeutic benefit of these products.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress-induced neuronal inflammatory response and apoptosis likely plays a key role in the development of diabetic encephalopathy

We assumed that diabetic encephalopathy (DEP) may be induced by endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-mediated inflammation and apoptosis in central nervous system. To test this notion, here we investigated the neuronal ER stress and associated inflammation and apoptosis in a type 2 diabetes model induced with high-fat diet/streptozotocin in Sprague-Dawley rats. Elevated expressions of ER stress markers, including glucose-regulated protein 78 (GRP78), activating transcription factor-6 (ATF-6), X-box binding protein-1 (XBP-1), and C/EBP homologous protein, and phosphor-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK) were evident in the hippocampus CA1 of diabetic rats. These changes were also accompanied with the activation of NF-κB and the increased levels of inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and Interleukin-6 (IL-6). Mechanistic study with in vitro cultured hippocampus neurons exposed to high glucose (HG), which induced a diabetes-like effects, shown by increased ER stress, JNK and NF-κB activation, and inflammatory response. Inhibition of ER stress by 4-phenylbutyrate (4-PBA) or blockade of JNK activity by specific inhibitor or transfection of DN-JNK attenuated HG-induced inflammation and associated apoptosis. To validate the in vitro finding, in vivo application of 4-PBA resulted in a significant reduction of diabetes-induced neuronal ER stress, inflammation and cell death, leading to the prevention of DEP. These results suggest that diabetes-induced neuronal ER stress plays the critical role for diabetes-induced neuronal inflammation and cell death, leading to the development of DEP.

Effect of aucubin on neural precursor cell survival during neuronal differentiation

PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

Aucubin (ACB) is an iridoid glycoside with various biological activities. Previously, it is reported that ACB reduces cell survival and proliferation in many human tumors, whereas it facilitates cell survival and neuroprotection in damaged neuronal cells and disease models. However, its effects on cell survival in the non-proliferating or differentiated neurons are not known.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We examined whether ACB facilitated cell survival in differentiating neural precursor cells, HiB5, compared with the proliferating HiB5 cells at various concentrations.

RESULTS

The cell viabilities were evaluated by measuring MTT values, cell numbers, amounts of neurotransmittersD1 and protein amounts of neuronal markers. Here, we showed that ACB promotes cell survival in differentiated neurons (10-200 μg/mL), but reduces it in proliferating NPCs (200-400 μg/mL). Protein amounts of neurofilament proteins, NF-H, NF-M, PSD-95 in post-synaptic density, GAP-43 in growing neurites and NeuN in differentiated neurons were upregulated by addition of ACB, indicating that cell survival increased in differentiated neurons, shown by immunoblot analysis. Especially, when PDGF was added into N2 media to facilitate neuronal differentiation of HiB5 cells, the viability of differentiated HiB5 cells was significantly elevated following the increase of ACB concentration. Furthermore, ACB promoted cell survival of specific neuron types, such as GABAergic neurons and glutamatergic neurons. When differentiated neurons were immunostained with markers for specific neurons, neuronal subtypes producing GABA and GAD 65/67 were immunostained more than subtypes producing glutamate and vGluT1.

CONCLUSION

These results indicate that ACB improves neuronal cell survival in differentiated cells, suggesting it may be a therapeutic compound for neurodegenerative disorders.

Aucubin promotes angiogenesis via estrogen receptor beta in a mouse model of hindlimb ischemia

Aucubin (AU) is an iridoid glycoside that has been shown to display estrogenic properties and has various pharmacological effects. Herein, we described the angiogenic properties of AU. In the study, hindlimb ischemia was induced by ligation of femoral artery on the right leg of ovariectomized mice. AU treatment significantly accelerated perfusion recovery and reduced tissue injury in mice muscle. Quantification of CD31-positive vessels in hindlimb muscles provided evidences that AU promoted angiogenesis in peripheral ischemia. In addition, results from quantitative PCR and western blot suggested AU induced angiogenesis via vascular endothelial cell growth factor (VEGF)/Akt/endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) signaling pathway. More interestingly, AU's angiogenic effects could be completely abolished in estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) knockout mice. In conclusion, the underlying mechanisms were elucidated that AU produced pro-angiogenic effects through ERβ-mediated VEGF signaling pathways. These results expand knowledge about the beneficial effects of AU in angiogenesis and blood flow recovery. It might provide insight into the ERβ regulating neovascularisation in hindlimb ischemia and identify AU as a potent new compound used for the treatment of peripheral vascular disease.

The Protective Effect of Aucubin from Eucommia ulmoides Against Status Epilepticus by Inducing Autophagy and Inhibiting Necroptosis

Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. is a famous traditional Chinese medicine which exhibits anti-oxidative stress ability and neuro-protective effects. Aucubin is the predominant component of Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. Our present study is intended to investigate aucubin's potential protective effects on neurons against epilepsy in the hippocampus by establishing the lithium-pilocarpine induced status epilepticus (SE) rat model in vivo. Aucubin (at a low dose and a high dose of 5[Formula: see text]mg/kg and 10[Formula: see text]mg/kg, respectively) was administered through gavage for two weeks before lithium-pilocarpine injection. Rats were sacrificed at 4, 24 and 72[Formula: see text]h after SE induction. Pretreatment with both low-dose and high-dose aucubin significantly reduced the number of death neurons ([Formula: see text]) and increased the number of surviving neurons ([Formula: see text]) in DG, Hilus, CA1 and CA3 hippocampal regions post SE. Meanwhile, it significantly inhibited necroptosis proteins (MLKL and RIP-1) ([Formula: see text] or [Formula: see text]) and enhanced autophagy protein (Beclin-1 and LC3BII/LC3BI) prevalence in the hippocampus ([Formula: see text] or [Formula: see text]). In conclusion, aucubin appeared to ameliorate damages in lithium-pilocarpine induced SE in hippocampus, reduce the number of apoptotic neurons, and increased the number of survival neurons by inducing autophagy and inhibiting necroptosis. These original findings might provide an important basis for the further investigation of the therapeutic role of aucubin in treatment or prevention of epilepsy-related neuronal damages.

Upregulation of p‑Akt by glial cell line‑derived neurotrophic factor ameliorates cell apoptosis in the hippocampus of rats with streptozotocin‑induced diabetic encephalopathy

The loss of neurotrophic factor support has been shown to contribute to the development of the central nervous system. Glial cell line‑derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), a potent neurotrophic factor, is closely associated with apoptosis and exerts neuroprotective effects on numerous populations of cells. However, the underlying mechanisms of these protective effects remain unknown. In the present study, a significant increase in Bax levels and DNA fragmentation was observed in the hippocampus obtained from the brains of diabetic rats 60 days after diabetes had been induced. The apoptotic changes were correlated with the loss of GDNF/Akt signaling. GDNF administration was found to reverse the diabetes‑induced Bax and DNA fragmentation changes. This was associated with an improvement in the level of p‑Akt/Akt. In addition, combination of GDNF with a specific inhibitor of the phosphoinositide 3‑kinase (PI3K)/Akt pathway, Wortmannin, significantly abrogated the effects of GDNF on the levels of p‑Akt/Akt, Bax and DNA fragmentation. However, a p38 mitogen‑activated proten kinase (MAPK) inhibitor, SB203580, had no effect on the expression of p‑Akt/Akt, Bax or DNA fragmentation. These results demonstrate the pivotal role of GDNF as well as the PI3K/Akt pathway, but not the MAPK pathway, in the prevention of diabetes‑induced neuronal apoptosis in the hippocampus.

A new furofuran lignan diglycoside and other secondary metabolites from the antidepressant extract of Castilleja tenuiflora Benth

Castilleja tenuiflora has been used for the treatment of several Central Nervous System (CNS) diseases. Herein we report the antidepressant activity of the methanol extract from the leaves of this medicinal plant. The oral administration of MeOH extract (500 mg/kg) induced a significant (p < 0.05) decrement of the immobility parameter on Forced Swimming Test (FST) and an increment in the latency and duration of the hypnosis, induced by administration of sodium pentobarbital (Pbi, 40 mg/kg, i.p.). Chemical analysis of this antidepressant extract allowed the isolation of (+)-piperitol-4-O-xylopyranosyl-(1→6)-O-glucopyranoside. This new furofuran lignan diglycoside was named tenuifloroside (1) and its complete chemical structure elucidation on the basis of 1D and 2D NMR spectra analysis of the natural compound 1 and its peracetylated derivative 1a is described. This compound was found together with two flavones—apigenin and luteolin 5-methyl ether—a phenylethanoid—verbascoside—and three iridoids—geniposide, caryoptoside and aucubin. All these compounds were purified by successive normal and reverse phase column chromatography. Tenuifloroside, caryoptoside and luteolin 5-methyl ether were isolated from Castilleja genus for the first time. These findings demonstrate that C. tenuiflora methanol extract has beneficial effect on depressive behaviors, and the knowledge of its chemical constitution allows us to propose a new standardized treatment for future investigations of this species in depressive illness.

Aucubin promotes neurite outgrowth in neural stem cells and axonal regeneration in sciatic nerves

Aucubin is an iridoid glycoside with a wide range of biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, anti-algesic as well as anti-tumor activities. Recently, it has been shown that aucubin prevents neuronal death in the hippocampal CA1 region in rats with diabetic encephalopathy. In addition, it has protective effects on H₂O₂-induced apoptosis in PC12 cells. We have shown here that aucubin promotes neuronal differentiation and neurite outgrowth in neural stem cells cultured primarily from the rat embryonic hippocampus. We also investigated whether aucubin facilitates axonal elongation in the injured peripheral nervous system. Aucubin promoted lengthening and thickness of axons and re-myelination at 3 weeks after sciatic nerve injury. These results indicate that administration of aucubin improved nerve regeneration in the rat model of sciatic nerve injury, suggesting that aucubin may be a useful therapeutic compound for the human peripheral nervous system after various nerve injuries.

Phytochemical profile of Paulownia tomentosa (Thunb). Steud

Paulownia tomentosa, a member of the plant family Paulowniaceae and a rich source of biologically active secondary metabolites, is traditionally used in Chinese herbal medicine. Flavonoids, lignans, phenolic glycosides, quinones, terpenoids, glycerides, phenolic acids, and miscellaneous other compounds have been isolated from different parts of P. tomentosa plant. Recent interest in this species has focused on isolating and identifying of prenylated flavonoids, that exhibit potent antioxidant, antibacterial, and antiphlogistic activities and inhibit severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus papain-like protease. They show cytotoxic activity against various human cancer cell lines and inhibit the effects of human cholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, and bacterial neuraminidases. Most of the compounds considered here have never been isolated from any other species of plant. This review summarizes the information about the isolated compounds that are active, their bioactivities, and the structure-activity relationships that have been worked out for them.