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de Carvalho JA, Monteiro RC, Hagen F, de Camargo ZP, Rodrigues AM. Trends in Molecular Diagnostics and Genotyping Tools Applied for Emerging Sporothrix Species. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8080809. [PMID: 36012797 PMCID: PMC9409836 DOI: 10.3390/jof8080809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is the most important subcutaneous mycosis that affects humans and animals worldwide. The mycosis is caused after a traumatic inoculation of fungal propagules into the host and may follow an animal or environmental transmission route. The main culprits of sporotrichosis are thermodimorphic Sporothrix species embedded in a clinical clade, including S. brasiliensis, S. schenckii, S. globosa, and S. luriei. Although sporotrichosis occurs worldwide, the etiological agents are not evenly distributed, as exemplified by ongoing outbreaks in Brazil and China, caused by S. brasiliensis and S. globosa, respectively. The gold standard for diagnosing sporotrichosis has been the isolation of the fungus in vitro. However, with the advance in molecular techniques, molecular assays have complemented and gradually replaced the classical mycological tests to quickly and accurately detect and/or differentiate molecular siblings in Sporothrix. Nearly all techniques available for molecular diagnosis of sporotrichosis involve PCR amplification, which is currently moving towards detecting Sporothrix DNA directly from clinical samples in multiplex qPCR assays. From an epidemiological perspective, genotyping is key to tracing back sources of Sporothrix infections, detecting diversity in outbreak areas, and thus uncovering finer-scale epidemiological patterns. Over the past decades, molecular epidemiological studies have provided essential information to policymakers regarding outbreak management. From high-to-low throughput genotyping methods, MLSA, AFLP, SSR, RAPD, PCR-RFLP, and WGS are available to assess the transmission dynamics and sporotrichosis expansion. This review discusses the trends in the molecular diagnosis of sporotrichosis, genotyping techniques applied in molecular epidemiological studies, and perspectives for the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamile Ambrósio de Carvalho
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (R.C.M.); (Z.P.d.C.)
| | - Ruan Campos Monteiro
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (R.C.M.); (Z.P.d.C.)
| | - Ferry Hagen
- Department of Medical Mycology, Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands;
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Sciencepark 904, 1098 XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Heidelberglaan 100, 3584 CX Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (R.C.M.); (Z.P.d.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023062, Brazil
| | - Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (R.C.M.); (Z.P.d.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), São Paulo 04023062, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-1155764551 (ext. 1540)
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Rodrigues AM, Gonçalves SS, de Carvalho JA, Borba-Santos LP, Rozental S, de Camargo ZP. Current Progress on Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Sporotrichosis and Their Future Trends. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8080776. [PMID: 35893145 PMCID: PMC9331723 DOI: 10.3390/jof8080776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis, a human and animal disease caused by Sporothrix species, is the most important implantation mycosis worldwide. Sporothrix taxonomy has improved in recent years, allowing important advances in diagnosis, epidemiology, and treatment. Molecular epidemiology reveals that S. brasiliensis remains highly prevalent during the cat-transmitted sporotrichosis outbreaks in South America and that the spread of S. brasiliensis occurs through founder effects. Sporothrix globosa and S. schenckii are cosmopolitan on the move, causing major sapronoses in Asia and the Americas, respectively. In this emerging scenario, one-health approaches are required to develop a creative, effective, and sustainable response to tackle the spread of sporotrichosis. In the 21st century, it has become vital to speciate Sporothrix, and PCR is the main pillar of molecular diagnosis, aiming at the detection of the pathogen DNA from clinical samples through multiplex assays, whose sensitivity reaches remarkably three copies of the target. The treatment of sporotrichosis can be challenging, especially after the emergence of resistance to azoles and polyenes. Alternative drugs arising from discoveries or repositioning have entered the radar of basic research over the last decade and point to several molecules with antifungal potential, especially the hydrazone derivatives with great in vitro and in vivo activities. There are many promising developments for the near future, and in this review, we discuss how these trends can be applied to the Sporothrix-sporotrichosis system to mitigate the advance of an emerging and re-emerging disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson Messias Rodrigues
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (Z.P.d.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo 04023062, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-1155764551 (ext. 1540)
| | - Sarah Santos Gonçalves
- Infectious Diseases Postgraduate Program, Center for Research in Medical Mycology, Federal University of Espírito Santo (UFES), Vitoria 29043900, Brazil;
| | - Jamile Ambrósio de Carvalho
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (Z.P.d.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo 04023062, Brazil
| | - Luana P. Borba-Santos
- Cell Biology and Parasitology Program, Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941902, Brazil; (L.P.B.-S.); (S.R.)
| | - Sonia Rozental
- Cell Biology and Parasitology Program, Institute of Biophysics Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941902, Brazil; (L.P.B.-S.); (S.R.)
| | - Zoilo Pires de Camargo
- Laboratory of Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, Discipline of Cellular Biology, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo 04023062, Brazil; (J.A.d.C.); (Z.P.d.C.)
- Department of Medicine, Discipline of Infectious Diseases, Federal University of São Paulo (UNIFESP), Sao Paulo 04023062, Brazil
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Maubon D, Garnaud C, Ramarozatovo LS, Fahafahantsoa RR, Cornet M, Rasamoelina T. Molecular Diagnosis of Two Major Implantation Mycoses: Chromoblastomycosis and Sporotrichosis. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8040382. [PMID: 35448613 PMCID: PMC9027143 DOI: 10.3390/jof8040382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Chromoblastomycosis and sporotrichosis are the two main implantation mycoses that are now recognized as fungal neglected tropical diseases (NTDs). Their laboratory diagnosis mainly relies on direct microscopy, histopathology, and identification of the fungus by culture. However, to be appropriately used, these techniques require mycological expertise that is not widely available and may be absent in peripheral health care facilities in endemic areas. In addition, they lack sensitivity and specificity, and the culture for isolation and identification can have a long time-to-results period. Molecular methods, including matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), have been developed in well-equipped reference laboratories. They greatly improve the rapidity and accuracy of diagnosis; in particular, for species identification. Recently, PCR and sequencing have paved the way for more user-friendly point-of-care tests, such as those based on LAMP or RCA technologies, which can be used in basic healthcare settings and even in field consultations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danièle Maubon
- Translational Innovation in Medicine and Complexity, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Grenoble Alpes, Domaine de la Merci, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Grenoble Alpes, Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Bd de la Chantourne, CEDEX, 38706 La Tronche, France; (D.M.); (C.G.)
| | - Cécile Garnaud
- Translational Innovation in Medicine and Complexity, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Grenoble Alpes, Domaine de la Merci, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Grenoble Alpes, Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Bd de la Chantourne, CEDEX, 38706 La Tronche, France; (D.M.); (C.G.)
| | | | | | - Muriel Cornet
- Translational Innovation in Medicine and Complexity, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université Grenoble Alpes, Domaine de la Merci, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Grenoble Alpes, Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Bd de la Chantourne, CEDEX, 38706 La Tronche, France; (D.M.); (C.G.)
- Correspondence:
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Martínez-Herrera E, Arenas R, Hernández-Castro R, Frías-De-León MG, Rodríguez-Cerdeira C. Uncommon Clinical Presentations of Sporotrichosis: A Two-Case Report. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10101249. [PMID: 34684198 PMCID: PMC8541424 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10101249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Revised: 09/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a subcutaneous endemic mycosis caused by species of the Sporothrix schenckii complex. The most common clinical form of the disease is lymphocutaneous, while the fixed cutaneous and disseminated cutaneous forms are rare. Moreover, it is more prevalent in immunocompetent individuals. In this study, we present two cases of sporotrichosis with uncommon clinical forms: fixed cutaneous (Case 1) and disseminated cutaneous (Case 2). Both cases were diagnosed in immunocompetent males from endemic regions in Mexico, who had at least 1 year of evolution without improvement in response to prior nonspecific treatments. The diagnosis of sporotrichosis caused by S. schenckii sensu stricto was established through the isolation of the pathogen and its identification through the amplification of a 331 bp fragment of the gene encoding calmodulin. In both cases, improvement was observed after treatment with potassium iodide. Cases 1 and 2 illustrate the rarity of these clinical forms in individuals residing in endemic areas; hence, it is important to ensure a high index of clinical suspicion for the diagnosis of mycosis, as the differential diagnoses vary widely.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erick Martínez-Herrera
- Research Unit, Regional Hospital of High Specialty of Ixtapaluca, Ixtapaluca 56530, Mexico; (E.M.-H.); (M.G.F.-D.-L.)
- Postgraduate Studies and Research Section, Higher School of Medicine, National Polytechnic Institute, Mexico City 11340, Mexico
- Efficiency, Quality, and Costs in Health Services Research Group (EFISALUD), Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, 36213 Vigo, Spain;
| | - Roberto Arenas
- Efficiency, Quality, and Costs in Health Services Research Group (EFISALUD), Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, 36213 Vigo, Spain;
- Department of Mycology, General Hospital “Dr. Manuel Gea González”, Mexico City 14080, Mexico
| | - Rigoberto Hernández-Castro
- Department of Ecology of Pathogens, General Hospital “Dr. Manuel Gea González”, Mexico City 14080, Mexico;
| | - María Guadalupe Frías-De-León
- Research Unit, Regional Hospital of High Specialty of Ixtapaluca, Ixtapaluca 56530, Mexico; (E.M.-H.); (M.G.F.-D.-L.)
| | - Carmen Rodríguez-Cerdeira
- Efficiency, Quality, and Costs in Health Services Research Group (EFISALUD), Galicia Sur Health Research Institute (IIS Galicia Sur), SERGAS-UVIGO, 36213 Vigo, Spain;
- Department of Dermatology, Hospital Vithas Ntra. Sra. de Fátima and University of Vigo, 36206 Vigo, Spain
- Campus of Vigo, University of Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-600-536-114
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Monno R, Brindicci G, Romeo O, De Carolis E, Criseo G, Sanguinetti M, Fumarola L, Ingravallo G, Mariani M, Monno L. Infection caused by Sporothrix schenckii: an autochthonous case in Bari, Southern Italy. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2020; 39:2457-2460. [PMID: 32564246 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-020-03939-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/01/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
An autochthonous case of lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis caused by Sporothrix schenckii is reported. The patient developed skin lesions localized along the lymphatics that appeared after he suffered an injury while collecting wicker canes in marshy water. The fungus was identified as Sporothrix schenckii by MALDI-TOF and sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis was also performed. Low MIC values were detected for all tested echinocandins and azoles except for fluconazole. The patient was treated with itraconazole without significant improvement. A regression of lesions was observed after 3 months of therapy with voriconazole. Few cases of sporotrichosis have been reported in Europe. However, several cases of sporotrichosis have been described in Italy. The incidence of sporotrichosis in Italy may be underestimated and microbiologists, and clinicians must be aware of this fungal infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa Monno
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sense Organs, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124, Bari, Italy.
| | - Gaetano Brindicci
- Clinic of Infectious Diseases, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124, Bari, Italy
| | - Orazio Romeo
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Elena De Carolis
- Department of Laboratory Sciences and Infectious Diseases, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Criseo
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Maurizio Sanguinetti
- Department of Laboratory Sciences and Infectious Diseases, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Luciana Fumarola
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Neuroscience and Sense Organs, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124, Bari, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Ingravallo
- Department of Emergency and Organ Transplantation (DETO), Pathology Section, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Michele Mariani
- Clinic of Infectious Diseases, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124, Bari, Italy
| | - Laura Monno
- Clinic of Infectious Diseases, University of Bari Aldo Moro, 70124, Bari, Italy
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Rasamoelina T, Raharolahy O, Rakotozandrindrainy N, Ranaivo I, Andrianarison M, Rakotonirina B, Maubon D, Rakotomalala F, Rakoto Andrianarivelo M, Andriantsimahavandy A, Rapelanoro Rabenja F, Ramarozatovo L, Cornet M. Chromoblastomycosis and sporotrichosis, two endemic but neglected fungal infections in Madagascar. J Mycol Med 2017; 27:312-324. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mycmed.2017.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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7
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Xirotagaros G, Drogari-Apiranthitou M, Panayiotides IG, Tsakiraki Z, Tsamakis C, Theotokoglou S, Tofas P, van Diepeningen AD, de Hoog GS, Petrikkos G, Rigopoulos D. Imported lymphocutaneous sporotrichosis in Greece. Br J Dermatol 2015; 173:291-3. [PMID: 25421871 DOI: 10.1111/bjd.13558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G Xirotagaros
- 2nd Department of Dermatology Venereology, 'Attikon' Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.
| | - M Drogari-Apiranthitou
- 4th Department of Internal Medicine/Infectious Diseases Research Laboratory, 'Attikon' Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - I G Panayiotides
- 2nd Department of Pathology, University of Athens Medical School, "Attikon" University Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - Z Tsakiraki
- 2nd Department of Pathology, University of Athens Medical School, "Attikon" University Hospital, Athens, Greece
| | - C Tsamakis
- 2nd Department of Dermatology Venereology, 'Attikon' Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - S Theotokoglou
- 2nd Department of Dermatology Venereology, 'Attikon' Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - P Tofas
- 4th Department of Internal Medicine/Infectious Diseases Research Laboratory, 'Attikon' Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | - G S de Hoog
- CBS-Knaw Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - G Petrikkos
- 4th Department of Internal Medicine/Infectious Diseases Research Laboratory, 'Attikon' Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - D Rigopoulos
- 2nd Department of Dermatology Venereology, 'Attikon' Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Phenotypic characteristics associated with virulence of clinical isolates from the Sporothrix complex. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:212308. [PMID: 25961005 PMCID: PMC4417584 DOI: 10.1155/2015/212308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Revised: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The Sporothrix complex members cause sporotrichosis, a subcutaneous mycosis with a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations. Several specific phenotypic characteristics are associated with virulence in many fungi, but studies in this field involving the Sporothrix complex species are scarce. Melanization, thermotolerance, and production of proteases, catalase, and urease were investigated in 61 S. brasiliensis, one S. globosa, and 10 S. schenckii strains. The S. brasiliensis strains showed a higher expression of melanin and urease compared with S. schenckii. These two species, however, presented similar thermotolerances. Our S. globosa strain had low expression of all studied virulence factors. The relationship between these phenotypes and clinical aspects of sporotrichosis was also evaluated. Strains isolated from patients with spontaneous regression of infection were heavily melanized and produced high urease levels. Melanin was also related to dissemination of internal organs and protease production was associated with HIV-coinfection. A murine sporotrichosis model showed that a S. brasiliensis strain with high expression of virulence factors was able to disseminate and yield a high fungal burden in comparison with a control S. schenckii strain. Our results show that virulence-related phenotypes are variably expressed within the Sporothrix complex species and might be involved in clinical aspects of sporotrichosis.
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Phylogeography and evolutionary patterns in Sporothrix spanning more than 14 000 human and animal case reports. Persoonia - Molecular Phylogeny and Evolution of Fungi 2015; 35:1-20. [PMID: 26823625 PMCID: PMC4713101 DOI: 10.3767/003158515x687416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Pathology to vertebrate hosts has emerged repeatedly in the order Ophiostomatales. Occasional infections have been observed in Sporothrix mexicana at a low level of virulence, while the main pathogenic species cluster in a derived clade around S. schenckii s.str. In this paper, phylogeny and epidemiology of the members of this clade were investigated for 99 clinical and 36 environmental strains using four genetic loci, viz. rDNA ITS and partial CAL, TEF1, and TEF3; data are compared with amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) genotyping. The four main species of the pathogenic clade were recognised. The species proved to show high degrees of endemicity, which enabled interpretation of literature data where live material or genetic information is lacking. The clade of four species comprised nine subclusters, which often had limited geographic distribution and were separate from each other in all partitions, suggesting low degrees of interbreeding between populations. In contrast, S. globosa exhibited consistent global distribution of identical AFLP types, suggesting another type of dispersal. Sporothrix brasiliensis is known to be involved in an expanding zoonosis and transmitted by cats, whereas S. globosa infections originated from putrid plant material, causing a sapronosis. Sporothrix schenckii s.str., the most variable species within the clade, also had a plant origin, with ecological similarities to that of S. globosa. A hypothesis was put forward that highly specific conditions in the plant material are required to promote the growth of Sporothrix. Fermented, self-heated plant debris may stimulate the thermodependent yeast-like invasive form of the fungus, which facilitates repeated infection of mammals.
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Chakrabarti A, Bonifaz A, Gutierrez-Galhardo MC, Mochizuki T, Li S. Global epidemiology of sporotrichosis. Med Mycol 2014; 53:3-14. [PMID: 25526781 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myu062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 302] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is an endemic mycosis caused by the dimorphic fungus Sporothrix schenckii sensu lato. It has gained importance in recent years due to its worldwide prevalence, recognition of multiple cryptic species within the originally described species, and its distinctive ecology, distribution, and epidemiology across the globe. In this review, we describe the current knowledge of the taxonomy, ecology, prevalence, molecular epidemiology, and outbreaks due to S. schenckii sensu lato. Despite its omnipresence in the environment, this fungus has remarkably diverse modes of infection and distribution patterns across the world. We have delved into the nuances of how sporotrichosis is intimately linked to different forms of human activities, habitats, lifestyles, and environmental and zoonotic interactions. The purpose of this review is to stimulate discussion about the peculiarities of this unique fungal pathogen and increase the awareness of clinicians and microbiologists, especially in regions of high endemicity, to its emergence and evolving presentations and to kindle further research into understanding the unorthodox mechanisms by which this fungus afflicts different human populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arunaloke Chakrabarti
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education & Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Alexandro Bonifaz
- Department of Mycology & Service of Dermatology, General Hospital of Mexico, México city, Mexico
| | - Maria Clara Gutierrez-Galhardo
- Laboratório de Dermatologia Infecciosa, Instituto de Pesquisa Clínica Evandro Chagas, Fundaçã Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Takashi Mochizuki
- Department of Dermatology, Kanazawa Medical University, Uchinada, Kahoku, Ishikawa, Japan
| | - Shanshan Li
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin, China
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Téllez MD, Batista-Duharte A, Portuondo D, Quinello C, Bonne-Hernández R, Carlos IZ. Sporothrix
schenckii complex biology: environment and fungal pathogenicity. Microbiology (Reading) 2014; 160:2352-2365. [DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.081794-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporothrix schenckii is a complex of various species of fungus found in soils, plants, decaying vegetables and other outdoor environments. It is the aetiological agent of sporotrichosis in humans and several animals. Humans and animals can acquire the disease through traumatic inoculation of the fungus into subcutaneous tissue. Despite the importance of sporotrichosis, it being currently regarded as an emergent disease in several countries, the factors driving its increasing medical importance are still largely unknown. There have only been a few studies addressing the influence of the environment on the virulence of these pathogens. However, recent studies have demonstrated that adverse conditions in its natural habitats can trigger the expression of different virulence factors that confer survival advantages both in animal hosts and in the environment. In this review, we provide updates on the important advances in the understanding of the biology of Spor. schenckii and the modification of its virulence linked to demonstrated or putative environmental factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. D. Téllez
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio Mesquita Filho, UNESP Rua Expedicionarios do Brasil 1621-CEP : 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Oriente University, Ave Las Americas, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba
| | - A. Batista-Duharte
- Immunotoxicology Laboratory, Toxicology and Biomedicine Center (TOXIMED), Medical Science University, Autopista Nacional Km. 1 1/2 CP 90400, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio Mesquita Filho, UNESP Rua Expedicionarios do Brasil 1621-CEP : 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - D. Portuondo
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio Mesquita Filho, UNESP Rua Expedicionarios do Brasil 1621-CEP : 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | - C. Quinello
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio Mesquita Filho, UNESP Rua Expedicionarios do Brasil 1621-CEP : 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil
| | | | - I. Z. Carlos
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio Mesquita Filho, UNESP Rua Expedicionarios do Brasil 1621-CEP : 14801-902, Araraquara, SP, Brazil
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Mata-Essayag S, Delgado A, Colella MT, Landaeta-Nezer ME, Rosello A, Perez de Salazar C, Olaizola C, Hartung C, Magaldi S, Velasquez E. Epidemiology of sporotrichosis in Venezuela. Int J Dermatol 2013; 52:974-80. [PMID: 23621481 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2012.05849.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sporotrichosis is one of the most common subcutaneous mycoses in Venezuela. It is a granulomatous chronic infection with cutaneous or subcutaneous tissue lesions. Regional lymphatic involvement may be present; extracutaneous disease is rare. The causal fungus Sporothrix schenckii has been isolated from soil, vegetation, and animals on numerous occasions and in many localities throughout the world. The aim of this study is to describe clinical and epidemiological features of cases of sporotrichosis observed in Venezuela and review of the literature. PATIENTS AND METHODS We included the demographic data, clinical features, diagnostic methods, treatment, and follow-up of patients with sporotrichosis from 1963 to 2009, diagnosed at the Department of Medical Mycology. RESULTS One-hundred and thirty-three sporotrichosis cases were diagnosed. Most patients were under the age of 30 years (66.15%). In 61.6% of them, the mode of transmission was not identified. The predominant clinical form in this population was lymphocutaneous (63.15%). Direct microscopic diagnosis was performed in 123 cases, and 57.9% yielded positive results for asteroid body. CONCLUSIONS Sporotrichosis is an endemic subcutaneous mycosis in Venezuela. There are no reports to this date of disseminated forms of the disease, even amongst patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Direct microscopic examination of wet mount slides with saline solution or distilled water in the search for asteroid bodies is paramount. Saturated sodium and potassium iodine solutions continue to be extremely efficacious and affordable to most of our patients, therefore our treatment of choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Mata-Essayag
- Sección de Micología Médica Dr Dante Borelli, Instituto de Medicina Tropical, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, Venezuela.
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Romeo O, Criseo G. What lies beyond genetic diversity in Sporothrix schenckii species complex?: New insights into virulence profiles, immunogenicity and protein secretion in S. schenckii sensu stricto isolates. Virulence 2013; 4:203-6. [PMID: 23334066 DOI: 10.4161/viru.23467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
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Dias NM, Oliveira MME, Santos C, Zancope-Oliveira RM, Lima N. Sporotrichosis caused by Sporothrix Mexicana, Portugal. Emerg Infect Dis 2012; 17:1975-6. [PMID: 22000393 PMCID: PMC3310684 DOI: 10.3201/eid1710.110737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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Abstract
Sporotrichosis, which is caused by the dimorphic fungus Sporothrix schenckii, is currently distributed throughout the world, especially in tropical and subtropical zones. Infection generally occurs by traumatic inoculation of soil, plants, and organic matter contaminated with the fungus. Certain leisure and occupational activities, such as floriculture, agriculture, mining, and wood exploitation, are traditionally associated with the mycosis. Zoonotic transmission has been described in isolated cases or in small outbreaks. Since the end of the 1990s there has been an epidemic of sporotrichosis associated with transmission by cats in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. More than 2,000 human cases and 3,000 animal cases have been reported. In humans, the lesions are usually restricted to the skin, subcutaneous cellular tissue, and adjacent lymphatic vessels. In cats, the disease can evolve with severe clinical manifestations and frequent systemic involvement. The gold standard for sporotrichosis diagnosis is culture. However, serological, histopathological, and molecular approaches have been recently adopted as auxiliary tools for the diagnosis of this mycotic infection. The first-choice treatment for both humans and cats is itraconazole.
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Phenotypic and Molecular Identification of Sporothrix Isolates from an Epidemic Area of Sporotrichosis in Brazil. Mycopathologia 2011; 172:257-67. [DOI: 10.1007/s11046-011-9437-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2011] [Accepted: 05/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Romeo O, Scordino F, Criseo G. New Insight into Molecular Phylogeny and Epidemiology of Sporothrix schenckii Species Complex Based on Calmodulin-Encoding Gene Analysis of Italian Isolates. Mycopathologia 2011; 172:179-86. [DOI: 10.1007/s11046-011-9420-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2010] [Accepted: 03/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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López-Romero E, Reyes-Montes MDR, Pérez-Torres A, Ruiz-Baca E, Villagómez-Castro JC, Mora-Montes HM, Flores-Carreón A, Toriello C. Sporothrix schenckii complex and sporotrichosis, an emerging health problem. Future Microbiol 2011; 6:85-102. [DOI: 10.2217/fmb.10.157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporothrix schenckii, now named the S. schenckii species complex, has largely been known as the etiological agent of sporotrichosis, which is an acute or chronic subcutaneous mycosis of humans and other mammals. Gene sequencing has revealed the following species in the S. schenckii complex: Sporothrix albicans, Sporothrix brasiliensis, Sporothrix globosa, Sporothrix luriei, Sporothrix mexicana and S. schenckii. The increasing number of reports of Sporothrix infection in immunocompromised patients, mainly the HIV-infected population, suggests sporotrichosis as an emerging global health problem concomitant with the AIDS pandemic. Molecular studies have demonstrated a high level of intraspecific variability. Components of the S. schenckii cell wall that act as adhesins and immunogenic inducers, such as a 70-kDa glycoprotein, are apparently specific to this fungus. The main glycan peptidorhamnomannan cell wall component is the only O-linked glycan structure known in S. schenckii. It contains an α-mannobiose core followed by one α-glucuronic acid unit, which may be mono- or di-rhamnosylated. The oligomeric structure of glucosamine-6-P synthase has led to a significant advance in the development of antifungals targeted to the enzyme’s catalytic domain in S. schenckii.
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Criseo G, Romeo O. Ribosomal DNA Sequencing and Phylogenetic Analysis of Environmental Sporothrix schenckii Strains: Comparison with Clinical Isolates. Mycopathologia 2010; 169:351-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s11046-010-9274-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2009] [Accepted: 01/13/2010] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Stable Yeast-Like Form of
Sporothrix schenckii
: Lack of Dimorphic Stage. J Clin Microbiol 2008; 46:3870-1. [DOI: 10.1128/jcm.01135-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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