Novel Curcumin-Resveratrol Solid Nanoparticles Synergistically Inhibit Proliferation of Melanoma Cells

Beyond the adverse effects of the systemic route: Exploiting nanocarriers for the topical treatment of skin cancers

Skin cancer is a heterogeneous disease that can be divided into two main groups, melanoma and nonmelanoma skin cancers. Conventional therapies for skin cancer have numerous systemic side effects and a high recurrence rate. Topical treatment is an alternative approach, but drug permeability remains a challenge. Therefore, nanocarriers appear as important nanotechnology tools that reduces both the side effects and improves clinical outcomes. This is why they are attracting growing interest. In this review, scientific articles on the use of nanocarriers for the topical treatment of skin cancer were collected. Despite the promising results of the presented nanocarriers and considering that some of them are already on the market, there is an urgent need for investment in the development of manufacturing methods, as well as of suitable toxicological and regulatory evaluations, since the conventional methods currently used to develop these nanocarriers-based products are more time-consuming and expensive than conventional products.

Integrating natural compounds and nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems: A novel strategy for enhanced efficacy and selectivity in cancer therapy

Cancer remains a leading cause of death worldwide, necessitating the development of innovative and more effective treatment strategies. Conventional cancer treatments often suffer from limitations such as systemic toxicity, poor pharmacokinetics, and drug resistance. Recently, there has been growing attention to utilizing natural compounds derived from various sources as possible cancer therapeutics. Natural compounds have demonstrated diverse bioactive properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor effects, making them attractive candidates for cancer treatment. However, their limited solubility and bioavailability present challenges for effective delivery to cancer cells. To overcome these limitations, researchers have turned to nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems. Nanoparticles, with their small size and unique properties, can encapsulate therapeutic agents and offer benefits such as improved solubility, prolonged drug release, enhanced cellular uptake, and targeted delivery. Functionalizing nanoparticles with specific ligands further enhances their precision in recognizing and binding to cancer cells. Combining natural compounds with nanotechnology holds great promise in achieving efficient and safe cancer treatments by enhancing bioavailability, pharmacokinetics, and selectivity toward cancer cells. This review article provides an overview of the advancements in utilizing natural substances and nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems for cancer treatment. It discusses the benefits and drawbacks of various types of nanoparticles, as well as the characteristics of natural compounds that make them appealing for cancer therapy. Additionally, current research on natural substances and nanoparticles in preclinical and clinical settings is highlighted. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives in developing natural compound-nanoparticle-based cancer therapies are discussed.

Nanocarriers in topical photodynamic therapy

INTRODUCTION

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has gained significant attention due to its superiority over conventional treatments. In the context of skin cancers and nonmalignant skin diseases, topical application of photosensitizer formulations onto affected skin, followed by illumination, offers distinct advantages. Topical PDT simplifies therapy by providing easy access to the skin, increasing drug concentration within the target area, and confining residual photosensitivity to the treated skin. However, the effectiveness of topical PDT is often hindered by challenges such as limited skin penetration or photosensitizer instability. Additionally, the hypoxic tumor environment poses further limitations. Nanocarriers present a promising solution to address these challenges.

AREAS COVERED

The objective of this review is to comprehensively explore and highlight the role of various nanocarriers in advancing topical PDT for the treatment of skin diseases. The primary focus is to address the challenges associated with conventional topical PDT approaches and demonstrate how nanotechnology-based strategies can overcome these challenges, thereby improving the overall efficiency and efficacy of PDT.

EXPERT OPINION

Nanotechnology has revolutionized the field of PDT, offering innovative tools to combat the unfavorable features of photosensitizers and hurdles in PDT. Nanocarriers enhance skin penetration and stability of photosensitizers, provide controlled drug release, reduce needed dose, increase production of reactive oxygen species, while reducing side effects, thereby improving PDT effectiveness.

Simple and affordable synchronous spectrofluorimetric determination of the natural anticancer polyphenols; resveratrol and curcumin in human plasma

In this work, resveratrol and curcumin, two natural polyphenols, were simultaneously determined in human plasma samples using a rapid, sensitive, green, and affordable synchronous fluorescence spectroscopic approach. Several factors affecting the performance of the procedure, including Δλ, pH, diluting solvent, and organized medium, were optimized. Based on the findings, the fluorescence of resveratrol and curcumin was measured at 304 and 443 nm, respectively, with Δλ of 80.0 nm and ethanol as the diluting solvent. Excellent linearity was demonstrated by the approach (r = 0.9999) over the concentration range of 5.00-1000.00 and 2.00-400.00 ng/mL for resveratrol and curcumin, respectively. The obtained detection limits for resveratrol and curcumin were 0.027 and 0.042 ng/mL, respectively, indicating the high sensitivity of the proposed method. Moreover, the method exhibited excellent precision (both inter and intra-day), with %RSD < 1 %. The "green analytical process index" and "Analytical GREEnness" metric tools were used to compare the green profiles of the proposed method to those of the published methods. These two greenness evaluation tools verified that the suggested methodology satisfied the greatest number of green criteria, proposing its usage as a green alternative for the routine analysis of the investigated natural anticancer polyphenols in human plasma.

Nanotechnology-empowered strategies in treatment of skin cancer

In current scenario skin cancer is a serious condition that has a significant impact on world health. Skin cancer is divided into two categories: melanoma skin cancer (MSC) and non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC). Because of its significant psychosocial effects and need for significant investment in new technology and therapies, skin cancer is an illness of global health relevance. From the patient's perspective chemotherapy considered to be the most acceptable form of treatment. However, significant negatives of chemotherapy such as severe toxicities and drug resistance pose serious challenges to the treatment. The field of nanomedicine holds significant promise for enhancing the specificity of targeting neoplastic cells through the facilitation of targeted drug delivery to tumour cells. The integration of multiple therapeutic modalities to selectively address cancer-promoting or cell-maintaining pathways constitutes a fundamental aspect of cancer treatment. The use of mono-therapy remains prevalent in the treatment of various types of cancer, it is widely acknowledged in the academic community that this conventional approach is generally considered to be less efficacious compared to the combination treatment strategy. The employment of combination therapy in cancer treatment has become increasingly widespread due to its ability to produce synergistic anticancer effects, mitigate toxicity associated with drugs, and inhibit multi-drug resistance by means of diverse mechanisms. Nanotechnology based combination therapy represents a promising avenue for the development of efficacious therapies for skin cancer within the context of this endeavour. The objective of this article is to provide a description of distinct challenges for efficient delivery of drugs via skin. This article also provides a summary of the various nanotechnology based combinatorial therapy available for skin cancer with their recent advances. This review also focuses on current status of clinical trials of such therapies.

Resveratrol-Loaded Attalea funifera Oil Organogel Nanoparticles: A Potential Nanocarrier against A375 Human Melanoma Cells

This study aimed to evaluate Attalea funifera seed oil with or without resveratrol entrapped in organogel nanoparticles in vitro against A375 human melanoma tumor cells. Organogel nanoparticles with seed oil (SON) or with resveratrol entrapped in the seed oil (RSON) formed functional organogel nanoparticles that showed a particle size <100 nm, polydispersity index <0.3, negative zeta potential, and maintenance of electrical conductivity. The resveratrol entrapment efficiency in RSON was 99 ± 1%. The seed oil and SON showed no cytotoxicity against human non-tumor cells or tumor cells. Resveratrol at 50 μg/mL was cytotoxic for non-tumor cells, and was cytotoxic for tumor cells at 25 μg/mL. Resveratrol entrapped in RSON showed a decrease in cytotoxicity against non-tumor cells and cytotoxic against tumor cells at 50 μg/mL. Thus, SON is a potential new platform for the delivery of resveratrol with selective cytotoxic activity in the treatment of melanoma.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles Embedded Hydrogels as a Promising Carrier for Retarding Irritation of Leflunomide

Leflunomide (LEF), a disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drug, has been widely explored for its anti-inflammatory potential in skin disorders such as psoriasis and melanoma. However, its poor stability and skin irritation pose challenges for topical delivery. To surmount these issues, LEF-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) integrated with hydrogels have been developed in the present investigation. SLNs developed by microemulsion techniques were found ellipsoidal with 273.1 nm particle size and -0.15 mV zeta potential. Entrapment and total drug content of LEF-SLNs were obtained as 65.25 ± 0.95% and 93.12 ± 1.72%, respectively. FTIR and XRD validated the successful fabrication of LEF-SLNs. The higher stability of LEF-SLNs (p < 0.001) compared to pure drug solution was observed in photostability studies. Additionally, in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of LEF-SLNs showed good potential in comparison to pure drugs. Further, prepared LEF-SLNs loaded hydrogel showed ideal rheology, texture, occlusion, and spreadability for topical drug delivery. In vitro release from LEF-SLN hydrogel was found to follow the Korsmeyer-Peppas model. To assess the skin safety of fabricated lipidic formulation, irritation potential was performed employing the HET-CAM technique. In conclusion, the findings of this investigation demonstrated that LEF-SLN hydrogel is capable of enhancing the photostability of the entrapped drug while reducing its skin irritation with improved topical delivery characteristics.

Recent Progress in Nanotechnology Improving the Therapeutic Potential of Polyphenols for Cancer

Polyphenols derived from fruits, vegetables, and plants are bioactive compounds potentially beneficial to human health. Notably, compounds such as quercetin, curcumin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), and resveratrol have been highlighted as antiproliferative agents for cancer. Due to their low solubility and limited bioavailability, some alternative nanotechnologies have been applied to encapsulate these compounds, aiming to improve their efficacy against cancer. In this comprehensive review, we evaluate the main nanotechnology approaches to improve the therapeutic potential of polyphenols against cancer using in vitro studies and in vivo preclinical models, highlighting recent advancements in the field. It was found that polymeric nanomaterials, lipid-based nanomaterials, inorganic nanomaterials, and carbon-based nanomaterials are the most used classes of nanocarriers for encapsulating polyphenols. These delivery systems exhibit enhanced antitumor activity and pro-apoptotic effects, particularly against breast, lung, prostate, cervical, and colorectal cancer cells, surpassing the performance of free bioactive compounds. Preclinical trials in xenograft animal models have revealed decreased tumor growth after treatment with polyphenol-loaded delivery systems. Moreover, the interaction of polyphenol co-delivery systems and polyphenol-drug delivery systems is a promising approach to increase anticancer activity and decrease chemotherapy side effects. These innovative approaches hold significant implications for the advancement of clinical cancer research.

The Role of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods in Skin Cancer: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Potential

Skin cancer is a prevalent type of cancer worldwide and has a high growth rate compared to other diseases. Although modern targeted therapies have improved the management of cutaneous neoplasms, there is an urgent requirement for a safer, more affordable, and effective chemoprevention and treatment strategy for skin cancer. Nutraceuticals, which are natural substances derived from food, have emerged as a potential alternative or adjunctive treatment option. In this review, we explore the current evidence on the use of omega-3 fatty acids and polyphenols (curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, apigenin, resveratrol, and genistein) for the treatment of melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC), as well as in their prevention. We discuss the mechanisms of action of the aforementioned nutraceuticals and their probable therapeutic benefits in skin cancer. Omega-3 fatty acids, curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, apigenin, resveratrol, and genistein have several properties, among which are anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor, which can help to prevent and treat skin cancer. However, their effectiveness is limited due to poor bioavailability. Nanoparticles and other delivery systems can improve their absorption and targeting. More research is needed to evaluate their safety and effectiveness as a natural approach to skin cancer prevention and treatment. These compounds should not replace conventional cancer treatments, but may be used as complementary therapy under the guidance of a healthcare professional.

Nanoparticles as a Therapeutic Delivery System for Skin Cancer Prevention and Treatment

The use of nanoparticles (NPs) as a therapeutic delivery system has expanded markedly over the past decade, particularly regarding applications targeting the skin. The delivery of NP-based therapeutics to the skin requires special consideration owing to its role as both a physical and immunologic barrier, and specific technologies must not only take into consideration the target but also the pathway of delivery. The unique challenge this poses has been met with the development of a wide panel of NP-based technologies meant to precisely address these considerations. In this review article, we describe the application of NP-based technologies for drug delivery targeting the skin, summarize the types of NPs, and discuss the current landscape of NPs for skin cancer prevention and skin cancer treatment as well as future directions within these applications.

Morin Hydrate Encapsulation and Release from Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for Melanoma Therapy

Melanoma incidence, a type of skin cancer, has been increasing worldwide. There is a strong need to develop new therapeutic strategies to improve melanoma treatment. Morin is a bioflavonoid with the potential for use in the treatment of cancer, including melanoma. However, therapeutic applications of morin are restrained owing to its low aqueous solubility and limited bioavailability. This work investigates morin hydrate (MH) encapsulation in mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) to enhance morin bioavailability and consequently increase the antitumor effects in melanoma cells. Spheroidal MSNs with a mean size of 56.3 ± 6.5 nm and a specific surface area of 816 m²/g were synthesized. MH was successfully loaded (MH-MSN) using the evaporation method, with a loading capacity of 28.3% and loading efficiency of 99.1%. In vitro release studies showed that morin release from MH-MSNs was enhanced at pH 5.2, indicating increased flavonoid solubility. The in vitro cytotoxicity of MH and MH-MSNs on human A375, MNT-1 and SK-MEL-28 melanoma cell lines was investigated. Exposure to MSNs did not affect the cell viability of any of the cell lines tested, suggesting that the nanoparticles are biocompatible. The effect of MH and MH-MSNs on reducing cell viability was time- and concentration-dependent in all melanoma cell lines. The A375 and SK-MEL-28 cell lines were slightly more sensitive than MNT-1 cells in both the MH and MH-MSN treatments. Our findings suggest that MH-MSNs are a promising delivery system for the treatment of melanoma.

Phytochemical-based nanodrugs going beyond the state-of-the-art in cancer management-Targeting cancer stem cells in the framework of predictive, preventive, personalized medicine

Cancer causes many deaths worldwide each year, especially due to tumor heterogeneity leading to disease progression and treatment failure. Targeted treatment of heterogeneous population of cells - cancer stem cells is still an issue in protecting affected individuals against associated multidrug resistance and disease progression. Nanotherapeutic agents have the potential to go beyond state-of-the-art approaches in overall cancer management. Specially assembled nanoparticles act as carriers for targeted drug delivery. Several nanodrugs have already been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for treating different cancer types. Phytochemicals isolated from plants demonstrate considerable potential for nanomedical applications in oncology thanks to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, and other health benefits. Phytochemical-based NPs can enhance anticancer therapeutic effects, improve cellular uptake of therapeutic agents, and mitigate the side effects of toxic anticancer treatments. Per evidence, phytochemical-based NPs can specifically target CSCs decreasing risks of tumor relapse and metastatic disease manifestation. Therefore, this review focuses on current outlook of phytochemical-based NPs and their potential targeting CSCs in cancer research studies and their consideration in the framework of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (3PM).

Co-administration of curcumin with other phytochemicals improves anticancer activity by regulating multiple molecular targets

Natural plant phytochemicals are effective against different types of diseases, including cancer. Curcumin, a powerful herbal polyphenol, exerts inhibitory effects on cancer cell proliferation, angiogenesis, invasion, and metastasis through interaction with different molecular targets. However, the clinical use of curcumin is limited due to poor solubility in water and metabolism in the liver and intestine. The synergistic effects of curcumin with some phytochemicals such as resveratrol, quercetin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, and piperine can improve its clinical efficacy in cancer treatment. The present review specifically focuses on anticancer mechanisms related to the co-administration of curcumin with other phytochemicals, including resveratrol, quercetin, epigallocatechin-3-gallate, and piperine. According to the molecular evidence, the phytochemical combinations exert synergistic effects on suppressing cell proliferation, reducing cellular invasion, and inducing apoptosis and cell cycle arrest. This review also emphasizes the significance of the co-delivery vehicles-based nanoparticles of such bioactive phytochemicals that could improve their bioavailability and reduce their systemic dose. Further high-quality studies are needed to firmly establish the clinical efficacy of the phytochemical combinations.

Co-Encapsulation of Drugs for Topical Application-A Review

Achieving the best possible outcome for the therapy is the main goal of a medicine. Therefore, nanocarriers and co-delivery strategies were invented to meet this need, as they can benefit many diseases. This approach was applied specifically for cancer treatment, with some success. However, these strategies may benefit many other clinical issues. Skin is the largest and most exposed organ of the human body, with physiological and psychological properties. Due to its exposition and importance, it is not difficult to understand how many skin diseases may impact on patients' lives, representing an important burden for society. Thus, this review aims to summarize the state of the art in research concerning nanocarriers and co-delivery strategies for topical agents' applications targeting skin diseases. The challenge for the medicine of the future is to deliver the drug with spatial and temporal control. Therefore, the co-encapsulation of drugs and the appropriate form of administration for them are so important and remain as unmet needs.

Advancements in nanoparticle-based treatment approaches for skin cancer therapy

Skin cancer has emerged as the fifth most commonly reported cancer in the world, causing a burden on global health and the economy. The enormously rising environmental changes, industrialization, and genetic modification have further exacerbated skin cancer statistics. Current treatment modalities such as surgery, radiotherapy, conventional chemotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy are facing several issues related to cost, toxicity, and bioavailability thereby leading to declined anti-skin cancer therapeutic efficacy and poor patient compliance. In the context of overcoming this limitation, several nanotechnological advancements have been witnessed so far. Among various nanomaterials, nanoparticles have endowed exorbitant advantages by acting as both therapeutic agents and drug carriers for the remarkable treatment of skin cancer. The small size and large surface area to volume ratio of nanoparticles escalate the skin tumor uptake through their leaky vasculature resulting in enhanced therapeutic efficacy. In this context, the present review provides up to date information about different types and pathology of skin cancer, followed by their current treatment modalities and associated drawbacks. Furthermore, it meticulously discusses the role of numerous inorganic, polymer, and lipid-based nanoparticles in skin cancer therapy with subsequent descriptions of their patents and clinical trials.

Drug Delivery Systems and Flavonoids: Current Knowledge in Melanoma Treatment and Future Perspectives

Melanoma is an aggressive form of skin cancer with a high prevalence in the population. An early diagnosis is crucial to cure this disease. Still, when this is not possible, combining potent pharmacological agents and effective drug delivery systems is essential to achieve optimal treatment and improve patients' quality of life. Nanotechnology application in biomedical sciences to encapsulate anticancer drugs, including flavonoids, in order to enhance therapeutic efficacy has attracted particular interest. Flavonoids have shown effectiveness against various types of cancers including in melanoma, but they show low aqueous solubility, low stability and very poor oral bioavailability. The utilization of novel drug delivery systems could increase flavonoid bioavailability, thereby potentiating its antitumor effects in melanoma. This review summarizes the potential of different flavonoids in melanoma treatment and the several nanosystems used to improve their biological activity, considering published information that reported improved biological and pharmacological properties of encapsulated flavonoids.

How to Treat Melanoma? The Current Status of Innovative Nanotechnological Strategies and the Role of Minimally Invasive Approaches like PTT and PDT

Melanoma is the most aggressive type of skin cancer, the incidence and mortality of which are increasing worldwide. Its extensive degree of heterogeneity has limited its response to existing therapies. For many years the therapeutic strategies were limited to surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. Fortunately, advances in knowledge have allowed the development of new therapeutic strategies. Despite the undoubted progress, alternative therapies are still under research. In this context, nanotechnology is also positioned as a strong and promising tool to develop nanosystems that act as drug carriers and/or light absorbents to potentially improve photothermal and photodynamic therapies outcomes. This review describes the latest advances in nanotechnology field in the treatment of melanoma from 2011 to 2022. The challenges in the translation of nanotechnology-based therapies to clinical applications are also discussed. To sum up, great progress has been made in the field of nanotechnology-based therapies, and our understanding in this field has greatly improved. Although few therapies based on nanoparticulate systems have advanced to clinical trials, it is expected that a large number will come into clinical use in the near future. With its high sensitivity, specificity, and multiplexed measurement capacity, it provides great opportunities to improve melanoma treatment, which will ultimately lead to enhanced patient survival rates.

Development of In Vitro Assays for Advancing Radioimmunotherapy against Brain Tumors

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary brain tumor. Due to high resistance to treatment, local invasion, and a high risk of recurrence, GBM patient prognoses are often dismal, with median survival around 15 months. The current standard of care is threefold: surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy with temozolomide (TMZ). However, patient survival has only marginally improved. Radioimmunotherapy (RIT) is a fourth modality under clinical trials and aims at combining immunotherapeutic agents with radiotherapy. Here, we develop in vitro assays for the rapid evaluation of RIT strategies. Using a standard cell irradiator and an Electric Cell Impedance Sensor, we quantify cell migration following the combination of radiotherapy and chemotherapy with TMZ and RIT with durvalumab, a PD-L1 immune checkpoint inhibitor. We measure cell survival using a cloud-based clonogenic assay. Irradiated T98G and U87 GBM cells migrate significantly (p < 0.05) more than untreated cells in the first 20−40 h post-treatment. Addition of TMZ increases migration rates for T98G at 20 Gy (p < 0.01). Neither TMZ nor durvalumab significantly change cell survival in 21 days post-treatment. Interestingly, durvalumab abolishes the enhanced migration effect, indicating possible potency against local invasion. These results provide parameters for the rapid supplementary evaluation of RIT against brain tumors.

Lipid Nanocarriers for Hyperproliferative Skin Diseases

Simple Summary

Different drugs, including antiproliferative and corticosteroids in general, are recommended for the treatment of hyperproliferative skin diseases (HSD). The effectiveness of many of these drugs is limited due to their low solubility in water and low penetration in the skin. The loading of these drugs in lipid nanocarriers, such as lipid nanoparticles and liposomes, has been considered as a successful solution to improve the drug bioavailability through the skin, to control their release kinetics and thus reduce the risk of potential side effects. In this work, we discuss the use of lipid nanocarriers loading drugs against HSD.

Abstract

Hyperproliferative skin diseases (HSD) are a group of diseases that include cancers, pre-cancerous lesions and diseases of unknown etiology that present different skin manifestations in terms of the degree and distribution of the injuries. Anti-proliferative agents used to treat these diseases are so diverse, including 5-aminolevulinic acid, 5-fluorouracil, imiquimod, methotrexate, paclitaxel, podophyllotoxin, realgar, and corticosteroids in general. These drugs usually have low aqueous solubility, which consequently decreases skin permeation. Thus, their incorporation in lipid nanocarriers has been proposed with the main objective to increase the effectiveness of topical treatment and reduce side effects. This manuscript aims to describe the advantages of using lipid nanoparticles and liposomes that can be used to load diversity of chemically different drugs for the treatment of HSD.

Electrochemotherapy of Deep-Seated Tumors: State of Art and Perspectives as Possible "EPR Effect Enhancer" to Improve Cancer Nanomedicine Efficacy

Simple Summary

Electroporation-based therapies (reversible electroporation, irreversible electroporation, electrochemotherapy) are used for the selective treatment of deep-seated tumors. The combination of the structural modifications of the lipid bilayer of cell membranes, due to the application of electrical pulses in the targeted tissue, with the concomitant systemic (intravenous) administration of drugs can be considered as a sort of bridge between local-regional and systemic treatments. A possible further application of these techniques can be envisaged in their use as enhancers of the so-called “enhanced permeability and retention” effect. The intratumoral uptake of drug-loaded nanocarriers concomitant with the application of electric pulses in the target tumor is a new scenario worthy of attention and can represent a potential new frontier for drug delivery in oncology.

Abstract

Surgical resection is the gold standard for the treatment of many kinds of tumor, but its success depends on the early diagnosis and the absence of metastases. However, many deep-seated tumors (liver, pancreas, for example) are often unresectable at the time of diagnosis. Chemotherapies and radiotherapies are a second line for cancer treatment. The “enhanced permeability and retention” (EPR) effect is believed to play a fundamental role in the passive uptake of drug-loaded nanocarriers, for example polymeric nanoparticles, in deep-seated tumors. However, criticisms of the EPR effect were recently raised, particularly in advanced human cancers: obstructed blood vessels and suppressed blood flow determine a heterogeneity of the EPR effect, with negative consequences on nanocarrier accumulation, retention, and intratumoral distribution. Therefore, to improve the nanomedicine uptake, there is a strong need for “EPR enhancers”. Electrochemotherapy represents an important tool for the treatment of deep-seated tumors, usually combined with the systemic (intravenous) administration of anticancer drugs, such as bleomycin or cisplatin. A possible new strategy, worthy of investigation, could be the use of this technique as an “EPR enhancer” of a target tumor, combined with the intratumoral administration of drug-loaded nanoparticles. This is a general overview of the rational basis for which EP could be envisaged as an “EPR enhancer” in nanomedicine.

Transdermal Delivery of Chemotherapeutics: Strategies, Requirements, and Opportunities

Chemotherapeutic drugs are primarily administered to cancer patients via oral or parenteral routes. The use of transdermal drug delivery could potentially be a better alternative to decrease the dose frequency and severity of adverse or toxic effects associated with oral or parenteral administration of chemotherapeutic drugs. The transdermal delivery of drugs has shown to be advantageous for the treatment of highly localized tumors in certain types of breast and skin cancers. In addition, the transdermal route can be used to deliver low-dose chemotherapeutics in a sustained manner. The transdermal route can also be utilized for vaccine design in cancer management, for example, vaccines against cervical cancer. However, the design of transdermal formulations may be challenging in terms of the conjugation chemistry of the molecules and the sustained and reproducible delivery of therapeutically efficacious doses. In this review, we discuss the nano-carrier systems, such as nanoparticles, liposomes, etc., used in recent literature to deliver chemotherapeutic agents. The advantages of transdermal route over oral and parenteral routes for popular chemotherapeutic drugs are summarized. Furthermore, we also discuss a possible in silico approach, Formulating for Efficacy™, to design transdermal formulations that would probably be economical, robust, and more efficacious.