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Stefanik O, Majerova P, Kovac A, Mikus P, Piestansky J. Capillary electrophoresis in the analysis of therapeutic peptides-A review. Electrophoresis 2024; 45:120-164. [PMID: 37705480 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202300141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
Therapeutic peptides are a growing class of innovative drugs with high efficiency and a low risk of adverse effects. These biomolecules fall within the molecular mass range between that of small molecules and proteins. However, their inherent instability and potential for degradation underscore the importance of reliable and effective analytical methods for pharmaceutical quality control, therapeutic drug monitoring, and compliance testing. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) has long time been the "gold standard" conventional method for peptide analysis, but capillary electrophoresis (CE) is increasingly being recognized as a complementary and, in some cases, superior, highly efficient, green, and cost-effective alternative technique. CE can separate peptides composed of different amino acids owing to differences in their net charge and size, determining their migration behavior in an electric field. This review provides a comprehensive overview of therapeutic peptides that have been used in the clinical environment for the last 25 years. It describes the properties, classification, current trends in development, and clinical use of therapeutic peptides. From the analytical point of view, it discusses the challenges associated with the analysis of therapeutic peptides in pharmaceutical and biological matrices, as well as the evaluation of CE as a whole and the comparison with LC methods. The article also highlights the use of microchip electrophoresis, nonaqueous CE, and nonconventional hydrodynamically closed CE systems and their applications. Overall, the article emphasizes the importance of developing new CE-based analytical methods to ensure the high quality, safety, and efficacy of therapeutic peptides in clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ondrej Stefanik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis and Nuclear Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
- Toxicological and Antidoping Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | - Petra Majerova
- Institute of Neuroimmunology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | - Andrej Kovac
- Institute of Neuroimmunology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | - Peter Mikus
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis and Nuclear Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
- Toxicological and Antidoping Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
| | - Juraj Piestansky
- Toxicological and Antidoping Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
- Institute of Neuroimmunology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
- Department of Galenic Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University in Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovak Republic
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Vida RG, Strauss LV, Bajtel Á, Kiss T, Csupor D, Fittler A. Safety and risks of CBD oils purchased online: unveiling uncertain quality and vague health claims. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1273540. [PMID: 38192407 PMCID: PMC10773908 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1273540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The unmet need for highly effective, naturally derived products with minimal side effects results in the over-popularity of ever-newer medicinal plants. In the middle of 2010, products containing cannabidiol (CBD), one of the special metabolites of Cannabis sativa, started to gain popularity. For consumers and healthcare providers alike, the legal context surrounding the marketing of CBD products is not entirely clear, and the safety of using some products is in doubt. Companies in the online medicinal product market profit from the confusion around CBD oils. Methods: In our study, we employed a complex method known as risk-based safety mapping of the online pharmaceutical market, which included health claim content analysis of online stores, test purchases, and labeling and quantitative analysis of the CBD content. Results: There were discovered 16 online retailers selling an average of 2-7 goods and CBD oils with a concentration of 3%-5% (30-50 mg/mL) CBD. The majority (n/N = 10/16, 62.5%) displayed potential health-related benefits indirectly on their website, and in the case of one web shop (n/N = 1/16, 6.3%), we detected COVID-19-related use. Altogether, 30 types of purported "indications" were collected. A total of 12 CBD oil products were test-purchased from online retailers in December 2020. Upon evaluating the packaging and product information, we noticed that three products (n/N = 3/12, 25%) lacked instructions on use, hence increasing the risk of inappropriate application and dosing. The cannabidiol content was quantified using UHPLC. The measured CBD concentrations of the products ranged from 19.58 mg/mL to 54.09 mg/mL (mean 35.51 mg/mL, median 30.63 mg/mL, and SD ± 12.57 mg/mL). One (8.33%) product was underlabeled, five (41.67%) were over-labeled, and only every second product (50%) was appropriately labeled based on the quantitative assessment of CBD concentration. Discussion: Further research and quality control are necessary to establish the regulatory context of the usage and classification of CBD and other cannabinoids in nonmedicinal products (e.g., food supplements), as authorities and policymakers worldwide struggle with the uncertainties surrounding CBD products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Róbert György Vida
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | | | - Ákos Bajtel
- Institute of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Tivadar Kiss
- Institute of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Dezső Csupor
- Institute of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
- Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - András Fittler
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
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Merczel S, Vida RG, Tasi T, Fittler A, Botz L. Quality of dorzolamide hydrochloride and timolol maleate containing eye drops distributed online. Saudi Pharm J 2023; 31:921-928. [PMID: 37250359 PMCID: PMC10220214 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsps.2023.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Patient safety risks associated with the online purchase of medications, especially in case of ophthalmic preparations, are significant. Our study aimed to carry out quality assessment of dorzolamide hydrochloride (DZA) and timolol maleate (TIM) eye drops preserved with benzalkonium chloride (BAC) via online test purchases. Three samples were purchased online, while control preparations were acquired through authorized national drug supply chain. Our method was based on the International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP) Inspection Checklist and integrated the evaluation of packaging and labelling. Sterility was established according to the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.), while qualitative and quantitative quality was assessed with high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) analysis. Several signs of falsification were recognized upon visual inspection of the online samples. All the products were clear, colourless, slightly viscous solutions. They were free from visible contaminants. The samples were sterile as no evidence of microbial growth was found. A quick and inexpensive HPLC analysis, optimized by the authors showed that active ingredients and the preservative deviated significantly (p < 0,05) with more than 10% from the values stated on the labels for at least one component (DZA: 99.3-113.1%, TIM: 112.8-139.2%, BAC: 82.4-97.7%). Development of comprehensive and reliable quality assessment methods are vital to increase public safety of pharmaceutical products sold online. A complex approach, integrating visual inspection, labelling assessment, microbiological analysis coupled with qualitative and quantitative methods provide a most reliable method. Due to its limited feasibility and cost-effectiveness, raising public awareness and limiting illegal online sellers should be the primary approaches to protect patients from substandard and falsified medicinal products sold via the internet. Particularly important for health professionals to understand this market and its public health concern, and to raise patient awareness of the risks associated with uncontrolled online purchase of medication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sára Merczel
- Somogy County Kaposi Mór Teaching Hospital, Department of Pharmacy, Tallián Gyula Street 20-32, 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary
- University of Pécs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, Honvéd Street 3, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Róbert György Vida
- University of Pécs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, Honvéd Street 3, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Tamás Tasi
- Somogy County Kaposi Mór Teaching Hospital, Medicopus Nonprofit Health Service Provider Ltd, Tallián Gyula Street 20-32, 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary
| | - András Fittler
- University of Pécs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, Honvéd Street 3, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - Lajos Botz
- University of Pécs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics, Honvéd Street 3, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
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Limbu YB, Huhmann BA. Illicit Online Pharmacies: A Scoping Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:ijerph20095748. [PMID: 37174265 PMCID: PMC10178756 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20095748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/05/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
This scoping review presents the extent and nature of the body of literature on illicit online pharmacies (IOPs) and identifies research gaps. Using the five-step framework developed by Arksey and O'Malley, we searched PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, CINAHL, Science Direct and PsycInfo to retrieve relevant studies published in English in peer-reviewed journals. The search strategy identified forty-three articles that met the inclusion criteria. Ten themes were identified and categorized into five clusters: patient risk, healthcare providers, marketing and supply chain, public health and society, and policy and regulation. Research into these clusters has evolved over time and has focused increasingly on issues related to specific drugs rather than the overall phenomenon. Data collection has been dominated by convenience sampling, online searches, content analysis and surveys. Data analysis remains primarily descriptive. Gaps within the extant literature suggest an agenda for future research into regulation and enforcement; public health awareness and education; healthcare services; risks to patients and public health; patient-, price- and product-related issues; website design; social media promotion; and supply chains and logistics. We conclude that IOPs are vastly understudied and suggest an urgent need for further empirical and conclusive research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yam B Limbu
- Feliciano School of Business, Montclair State University, 1 Normal Ave., Montclair, NJ 07043, USA
| | - Bruce A Huhmann
- Department of Marketing, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23284, USA
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Mavragani A, Jarmusch AK, Xu Q, Sun K, Lu A, Aguirre S, Lim J, Bhakta S, Dorrestein PC. Multifactor Quality and Safety Analysis of Antimicrobial Drugs Sold by Online Pharmacies That Do Not Require a Prescription: Multiphase Observational, Content Analysis, and Product Evaluation Study. JMIR Public Health Surveill 2022; 8:e41834. [PMID: 36563038 PMCID: PMC9823576 DOI: 10.2196/41834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antimicrobial resistance is a significant global public health threat. However, the impact of sourcing potentially substandard and falsified antibiotics via the internet remains understudied, particularly in the context of access to and quality of common antibiotics. In response, this study conducted a multifactor quality and safety analysis of antibiotics sold and purchased via online pharmacies that did not require a prescription. OBJECTIVE The aim of this paper is to identify and characterize "no prescription" online pharmacies selling 5 common antibiotics and to assess the quality characteristics of samples through controlled test buys. METHODS We first used structured search queries associated with the international nonproprietary names of amoxicillin, azithromycin, amoxicillin and clavulanic acid, cephalexin, and ciprofloxacin to detect and characterize online pharmacies offering the sale of antibiotics without a prescription. Next, we conducted controlled test buys of antibiotics and conducted a visual inspection of packaging and contents for risk evaluation. Antibiotics were then analyzed using untargeted mass spectrometry (MS). MS data were used to determine if the claimed active pharmaceutical ingredient was present, and molecular networking was used to analyze MS data to detect drug analogs as well as possible adulterants and contaminants. RESULTS A total of 109 unique websites were identified that actively advertised direct-to-consumer sale of antibiotics without a prescription. From these websites, we successfully placed 27 orders, received 11 packages, and collected 1373 antibiotic product samples. Visual inspection resulted in all product packaging consisting of pill packs or blister packs and some concerning indicators of potential poor quality, falsification, and improper dispensing. Though all samples had the presence of stated active pharmaceutical ingredient, molecular networking revealed a number of drug analogs of unknown identity, as well as known impurities and contaminants. CONCLUSIONS Our study used a multifactor approach, including web surveillance, test purchasing, and analytical chemistry, to assess risk factors associated with purchasing antibiotics online. Results provide evidence of possible safety risks, including substandard packaging and shipment, falsification of product information and markings, detection of undeclared chemicals, high variability of quality across samples, and payment for orders being defrauded. Beyond immediate patient safety risks, these falsified and substandard products could exacerbate the ongoing public health threat of antimicrobial resistance by circulating substandard product to patients.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alan K Jarmusch
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Qing Xu
- S-3 Research, San Diego, CA, United States.,Department of Healthcare Technology and Policy, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Kunyang Sun
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Aileen Lu
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Shaden Aguirre
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Jessica Lim
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Simran Bhakta
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
| | - Pieter C Dorrestein
- Collaborative Mass Spectrometry Innovation Center, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States.,Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
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Facebook as a source of access to medicines. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0275272. [PMID: 36227918 PMCID: PMC9560064 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0275272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last decade, we've observed an enormous social media development, which have recently become commercial services. Hence, we aimed to verify if Facebook might be considered as a source of access to medicines. We also intended to identify prescription (Rx) and over the counter (OTC) medicines if available on that platform. The study was conducted from January 2019 to July 2020. We investigated offers of pharmaceuticals posted on Facebook (individual posts and communities) between 2016 and 2019. Medicines were divided into Rx and OTC brands and in accordance with their possible therapeutic use. We verified whether the medicines were for sale, to exchange, or available for free. Posts and groups were investigated for example, by entering the phrase "for free," followed by a city in Poland. Out of 409 offers, 380 (92.91%) concerned Rx brands and 29 (7.09%) OTC brands. 315 (77.02%) medications were available "for free". In 47 (11.49%) cases, an "exchange" was expected, and 47 (11.49%) announcements were marked as "for sale". Cardiovascular medicines (n = 125; 30.56%) were the most popular. There were also antidiabetics (n = 38; 9.29%) and antipsychotics (n = 28; 6.84%). We also found clear candidates for misuse. These were opioids (n = 7; 1.71%), benzodiazepines (n = 2; 0.48%), clomifene (n = 1; 0.24%), and letrozole (n = 1; 0.24%). Facebook provides the possibility of uncontrolled access to medicines. The majority of offers concerned Rx brands, including opioids and benzodiazepines. Medicines offered on Facebook were mainly accessible for free. The scope and the number of medications offered on Facebook should make this issue a hazardous phenomenon.
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Hu Q, Hu H, Hu M, Zhang J, Gou L, Shi S, Zhou J, Zhou N, Huang Z. Use of failure mode and effect analysis to reduce patient safety risks in purchasing prescription drugs from online pharmacies in China. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:913214. [PMID: 35928298 PMCID: PMC9343844 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.913214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Online pharmacies have gradually penetrated the market, but pose risks to patients' health. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an effective and reliable method for reducing pharmacy and medication risks. The purpose of this study was to conduct a prospective risk analysis of the process of purchasing prescription drugs from online pharmacies in China to guarantee drug quality and patient safety. Methods The FMEA was performed at Sichuan University, China. A multidisciplinary team was assembled comprising a leader, four regulators, four pharmacists, two experts, etc. The process was composed of eight subprocesses: searching for prescription drugs, submitting medication requirements, completing patient information forms, dispensing, delivering, etc. Brainstorming was used to identify and prioritize failure modes, propose corrective actions, and reduce risks. Risk priority numbers were the main criterion and were obtained by multiplying three scores: severity, occurrence and detectability, which were scored by the team The team proposed corrective actions for each selected failure mode. Results A total of forty-one potential failure modes were identified, and the causes, effects, and corrective actions of the 30 top failure modes were analyzed. The highest risk value was assigned to “photocopies of paper prescriptions uploaded were reused by patients.” Three failure modes for the S value of 5 were: “drugs are eroded and polluted by moisture or insects in the process of transportation,” “the qualification information of the pharmacies were absent or fake,” and “pharmacists fail to check prescriptions in accordance with Prescription Administrative Regulation.” Of the top failure modes, 36.67% were from Step 5, delivering the drug. After taking corrective measures to control risks, the risks reduced by 69.26%. Conclusion The results of this study proves that the FMEA is a valuable tool for identifying and prioritizing the risks inherent in online pharmacies. This study shows that there are many potential risks in the process of purchasing prescription drugs from online pharmacies, especially in the drug delivery stage. Enhanced training and the introduction of smart devices may minimize risks. Online pharmacies and Chinese regulators should consider these findings for risk mitigation and the improvement of regulations pertaining to online pharmacies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinyuan Hu
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- Administration for Market Regulation of Qionglai, Chengdu, China
| | - Haiyao Hu
- West China School of Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Ming Hu
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jun Zhang
- Administration for Market Regulation of Chengdu, Chengdu, China
| | - Liangwen Gou
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Shuping Shi
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jingyi Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Naitong Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Drug-Targeting and Drug Delivery System of the Education Ministry and Sichuan Province, Sichuan Engineering Laboratory for Plant-Sourced Drug and Sichuan Research Center for Drug Precision Industrial Technology, West China School of Pharmacy, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Naitong Zhou
| | - Zhen Huang
- Administration for Market Regulation of Chengdu, Chengdu, China
- Zhen Huang
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Ofori-Parku SS, Park SE. I (Don’t) want to consume counterfeit medicines: exploratory study on the antecedents of consumer attitudes toward counterfeit medicines. BMC Public Health 2022; 22:1094. [PMID: 35650557 PMCID: PMC9158175 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-022-13529-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Substandard and falsified medicine (SFM) sales (an estimated > $200 billion) has become one of the worlds’ fastest growing criminal enterprises. It presents an enormous public health and safety challenge. While the developed world is not precluded from this challenge, studies focus on low-income countries. They emphasize supply chain processes, technological, and legal mechanisms, paying less attention to consumer judgment and decision-making aspects. Methods With attention to the demand side of the counterfeit medicines challenge, this survey of U.S. consumers (n = 427) sheds light on some of the social, psychological, and normative factors that underlie consumers’ attitudes, risk perceptions, and purchase intentions. Results Consumers who (a) self-report that they know about the problem, (b) are older, (c) view counterfeit medicine consumption as ethical, and (d) think their significant others would approve of them using such products are more inclined to perceive lower risks and have favorable purchase intentions. Risk averseness is also inversely related to the predicted outcomes. Perceived benefit of SFMs is a factor but has no effect when risk perception and aversion, attitudes, and subjective norms are factored into the model that predicts purchase intentions. Conclusion The results of this study indicate that consumer knowledge (albeit in an unexpected direction), people’s expectations about what will impress their significant others, their ethical judgments about selling and consuming counterfeits, and their risk-aversion are associated with their decision-making about counterfeit medicines. The study offers insights into a demand-side approach to addressing SFM consumption in the U.S. Implications for public health, consumer safety, and brand advocacy education are discussed. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-022-13529-7.
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Long CS, Kumaran H, Goh KW, Bakrin FS, Ming LC, Rehman IU, Dhaliwal JS, Hadi MA, Sim YW, Tan CS. Online Pharmacies Selling Prescription Drugs: Systematic Review. PHARMACY 2022; 10:pharmacy10020042. [PMID: 35448701 PMCID: PMC9031186 DOI: 10.3390/pharmacy10020042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: The patronage of online pharmacies is rapidly growing, driven by the convenience and cheaper costs of purchasing prescription drugs electronically, especially under the lockdown situation. However, there are issues regarding the quality of the prescription drugs sold online and the legitimacy of online pharmacies. The use of prescription drugs without the supervision of a licensed health care practitioner may potentially harm consumers. Objectives: This systematic review was conducted to improve the body of knowledge on three main aspects of online pharmacies: (1) type and characteristics of the online pharmacies selling drugs; (2) the quality of pharmaceutical drugs purchased online; and (3) the characteristics of consumers of online pharmacies. Methods: Based on a pre-defined search strategy, PubMed and Scopus were utilised to search articles written in the English language published between January 2009 and February 2020. Studies focusing on the sale of prescription drugs were included. The terms used for the literature search were “online pharmacy”, “internet pharmacy”, “e-pharmacy”, “prescription”, “quality”, “medication safety”, and “counterfeit medicine”. These terms were used alone and in combination with Boolean operators. The institutional webpages including the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) were also examined for any additional studies. No methodological limitations in terms of study design were applied. A standardised data collection form was used to compile the data. Results: Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, a total of 46 articles were eligible and included in the final analysis. There were 27 articles on types and characteristic of online pharmacies, 13 articles on the quality of prescription drugs sold from online pharmacies, and 11 articles on consumers purchasing prescription drugs from online pharmacies. Readers should note that five articles discussed both the types and characteristics of online pharmacies, and the quality of the drugs sold from the outlets. The response rate (products received out of the number of orders) ranged from 20% to 100%, whereas the proportion of consumers buying prescription drugs online ranged from 2.3% to 13%. Reasons for online purchase of prescription drugs include the difficulty of obtaining a prescription for certain medications such as opioid analgesics, cheaper cost, since the costs associated with seeing a physician to obtain a prescription are reduced, and the need to obtain drugs such as opioid analgesics and benzodiazepine for misuse. Conclusions: Almost half of the online pharmacies are not properly regulated and fraudulent issues were uncovered. To address this issue, stricter regulation by World Health Organization and implementation should be carried out together with frequent monitoring of the licensure system and pharmacy verification on every online pharmacy, this would reduce the number of illegal or illegitimate online pharmacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiau Soon Long
- Faculty of Computing and Engineering, Quest International University, Ipoh 30250, Malaysia;
| | - Harshily Kumaran
- School of Pharmacy, KPJ Healthcare University College, Nilai 71800, Malaysia; (H.K.); (F.S.B.)
| | - Khang Wen Goh
- Faculty of Data Science and Information Technology, INTI International University, Nilai 71800, Malaysia;
| | - Faizah Safina Bakrin
- School of Pharmacy, KPJ Healthcare University College, Nilai 71800, Malaysia; (H.K.); (F.S.B.)
| | - Long Chiau Ming
- PAP Rashidah Sa’adatul Bolkiah Institute of Health Sciences, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei; (L.C.M.); (J.S.D.)
| | - Inayat Ur Rehman
- Department of Pharmacy, Abdul Wali Khan University Mardan, Mardan 23200, Pakistan;
| | - Jagjit Singh Dhaliwal
- PAP Rashidah Sa’adatul Bolkiah Institute of Health Sciences, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Gadong BE1410, Brunei; (L.C.M.); (J.S.D.)
| | - Muhammad Abdul Hadi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Practice, College of Pharmacy, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha P.O. Box 2713, Qatar;
| | - Yee Wai Sim
- Faculty of Computing and Engineering, Quest International University, Ipoh 30250, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: (Y.W.S.); (C.S.T.)
| | - Ching Siang Tan
- School of Pharmacy, KPJ Healthcare University College, Nilai 71800, Malaysia; (H.K.); (F.S.B.)
- Correspondence: (Y.W.S.); (C.S.T.)
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Ahmed J, Modica de Mohac L, Mackey TK, Raimi-Abraham BT. A critical review on the availability of substandard and falsified medicines online: Incidence, challenges and perspectives. THE JOURNAL OF MEDICINE ACCESS 2022; 6:23992026221074548. [PMID: 36204527 PMCID: PMC9413502 DOI: 10.1177/23992026221074548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Simultaneous expansion of the Internet and increased globalisation of the
pharmaceutical industry have meant medication can be accessed transnationally
from both legal and illicit sources. This has coincided with the rise of
substandard and falsified medicines (SFMs) online. These products fail to meet
regulatory or quality standards and/or are constituted with substandard
ingredients, causing undesired pharmacological effects, including possible
injury and death. This review aimed to identify original research studies that
examined characteristics of SFM online sales, attitudes towards purchasing
medicines online and strategies to address this drug safety challenge. Keywords
of ‘Substandard’ and ‘Falsified’/‘Counterfeit’ and ‘Medicines’/‘Drugs’ and
‘Online’/‘Internet’ were searched using Web of Knowledge and PubMed databases.
Resulting literature, which satisfied the study’s inclusion criteria, was
included in the review, and the findings from each paper were assessed. From an
initial 185 literature articles, 7 were eligible according to the inclusion
criteria to be reviewed. These articles identified studies testing SFMs
purchased online, surveys of attitudes and knowledge about SFMs online, and
website content analysis to detect illegal online sales. Challenges identified
were lack of knowledge and awareness among consumers and physicians, in addition
to the use of direct-to-consumer-advertising, via Internet platforms and social
media, providing easy access to SFMs. Despite this, medicine authentication
technology, website verification approaches and new detection methods were
identified as potential solutions specific to online SFM sales. To address
online sales of SFMs, more robust research, greater awareness/educational
programmes, analytical detection methods and more stringent online global
governance are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamee Ahmed
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Laura Modica de Mohac
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Science, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Tim K Mackey
- Department of Anesthesiology and Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health, School of Medicine, UC San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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11
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Vida RG, Merczel S, Jáhn E, Fittler A. Developing a framework regarding a complex risk based methodology in the evaluation of hazards associated with medicinal products sourced via the internet. Saudi Pharm J 2020; 28:1733-1742. [PMID: 33424264 PMCID: PMC7783221 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsps.2020.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Today, the increasing number of illicit internet pharmacies is a global phenomenon, however, the size of the online pharmaceutical market is still relatively unknown and the dubious quality of products is questionable and warrants investigation. Descriptive data from this black market channel are derived from studies analyzing the online availability of different medications procured over the internet and their methodology is quite heterogeneous. Our aim was to develop a comprehensive and specific risk assessment for selecting high patient safety risk medications from the online pharmaceutical market. A rapid tool was developed based upon the two quality and safety standard resolutions in pharmaceutical practice, published by the European Directorate for the Quality of Medicines, and was illustrated on eye drops. We developed five dimensions in support of the risk assessment including intrinsic, extrinsic and potential risks of counterfeiting. The five criteria were integrated in a comprehensively weighted risk-scoring format. The probability of procuring the product from the internet was also assessed based on the number of relevant links within the first twenty search engine results and the cost of the products. With the application of the tool a dorzolamide & timolol combination eye drop represented the highest overall patient safety risk score. In consideration of our literature review of the past 20 years, there is no current, standardized methodology to effectively identify pharmaceutical products associated with high patient safety risks. Notably, the fully comprehensive analysis of the internet pharmaceutical market and the test purchase of all online available medicines is unrealistic. Therefore, we developed a method to aid online surveillance researches and targeted international organizational led joint actions against the uncontrolled sale of falsified and substandard medications (e.g.: Operation Pangea).
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Affiliation(s)
- Róbert György Vida
- University of Pécs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics and Central Clinical Pharmacy, Honvéd Street 3, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
- Corresponding author.
| | - Sára Merczel
- Department of Pharmacy, Somogy County Kaposi Mór Teaching Hospital, Tallián Gyula Street 20-32, 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary
| | - Eszter Jáhn
- University of Pécs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics and Central Clinical Pharmacy, Honvéd Street 3, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
| | - András Fittler
- University of Pécs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutics and Central Clinical Pharmacy, Honvéd Street 3, 7624 Pécs, Hungary
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12
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Jones NS, Comparin JH. Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 2:608-669. [PMID: 33385148 PMCID: PMC7770462 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA
| | - Jeffrey H. Comparin
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
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13
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Bowman C, Family H, Agius-Muscat H, Cordina M, Sutton J. Consumer internet purchasing of medicines using a population sample: A mixed methodology approach. Res Social Adm Pharm 2019; 16:819-827. [PMID: 31668549 DOI: 10.1016/j.sapharm.2019.09.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Revised: 08/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Malta has an average of 3-4 private community pharmacies per locality, providing patients with easy access to medicines yet according to general statistics gathered from European organisations, Internet is used to purchase various online products with medicines being amongst them. OBJECTIVES To identify patterns around internet purchasing of medicines among Maltese residents. METHODS The study followed a mixed methods approach, employing a cross-sectional survey followed by semi-structured interviews. A random sample of 1996 residents were selected from the Maltese electoral register to participate in a postal questionnaire designed to gather data about purchasing prescription-only-medicines (POM) as well as over-the-counter (OTC) medicines. Results were analysed using descriptive statistics and Chi-square to establish associations between responses. Five interviews investigated participants' concerns related to sourcing of medicines. The participants were purposively chosen from the questionnaire respondents. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. RESULTS The survey had a 22% response rate (N = 444) (60% female; mean age 52 years ± 17). Two (0.45%) participants reported purchasing POMs online in the past, while 4.3% (n = 19) purchased OTCs including vitamins, supplements and herbal combinations. The main reasons for OTC online purchasing were lack of local availability (n = 6; 1.4%) and lower price (n = 11; 2.5%). A total of 89% (n = 395) of respondents provided a reason for not purchasing online, with safety issues being the primary reason for 41% (n = 181) of these. Interviewees expressed disregard towards internet purchasing of medicines that was evident from the themes that emerged: definition of 'medicines', health autonomy and trust in self-care, relationships and trust in health professional, restrictions of medicine supply, influence of cost, need for options. CONCLUSIONS The Maltese appear to be rather cautious and do not purchase POMs online, citing the risks that may be associated with internet purchasing. With regards to OTCs, a small percentage purchase these online and exposing them to risks associated with unauthorised sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinne Bowman
- Medicines Use Research Group, Department of Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine & Surgery, University of Malta, Malta.
| | - Hannah Family
- Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, University of Bath, UK
| | - Hugo Agius-Muscat
- Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine & Surgery, University of Malta, Malta
| | - Maria Cordina
- Medicines Use Research Group, Department of Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine & Surgery, University of Malta, Malta
| | - Jane Sutton
- Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, University of Bath, UK
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14
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Ludasi K, Jójárt-Laczkovich O, Sovány T, Hopp B, Smausz T, Regdon G. Comparison of conventionally and naturally coloured coatings marked by laser technology for unique 2D coding of pharmaceuticals. Int J Pharm 2019; 570:118665. [PMID: 31499234 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.118665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Substandard and/or falsified medicines are a growing global threat for health and they cause serious social and economic damage. In low- and middle-income countries the failure rate of these medical products is approximately 10.5%. 50% of medicines purchased over the Internet may be fake. According to Directive 2011/62/EU as regards the prevention of falsified medicines from entering into the legal supply chain, a unique identification should be put on each box of drugs in the EU from 9th February 2019. The current project is focusing on the development of a laser technology to mark an individual traceable code on the surface of the tablet. Usually, coatings contain titanium dioxide for sufficient coverage, which makes precision laser coding more difficult. New naturally coloured films do not include those excipients. In this research, we would like to compare the physical-chemical properties of conventionally and naturally coloured coatings after the laser marking procedure by using two types of lasers. This unique identification technology can be used for marking personalized medicine with the doses tailored for each patient, too. To sum up, the present findings may contribute to efficient and reliable laser marking solutions in the unique identification procedure. Based on our measurement results, it can be stated that excimer UV lasers are promising candidates as marking instruments for the polymer film in both conventionally and naturally coloured coatings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krisztina Ludasi
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology and Regulatory Affairs, University of Szeged, Eötvös utca 6, 6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Orsolya Jójárt-Laczkovich
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology and Regulatory Affairs, University of Szeged, Eötvös utca 6, 6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Tamás Sovány
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology and Regulatory Affairs, University of Szeged, Eötvös utca 6, 6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Béla Hopp
- Department of Optics and Quantum Electronics, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 9, 6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Tomi Smausz
- MTA-SZTE Research Group on Photoacoustic Spectroscopy, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 9, 6720 Szeged, Hungary; Department of Optics and Quantum Electronics, University of Szeged, Dóm tér 9, 6720 Szeged, Hungary
| | - Géza Regdon
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology and Regulatory Affairs, University of Szeged, Eötvös utca 6, 6720 Szeged, Hungary.
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15
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Janvier S, De Spiegeleer B, Vanhee C, Deconinck E. Falsification of biotechnology drugs: current dangers and/or future disasters? J Pharm Biomed Anal 2018; 161:175-191. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2018.08.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 08/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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16
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Janvier S, Cheyns K, Canfyn M, Goscinny S, De Spiegeleer B, Vanhee C, Deconinck E. Impurity profiling of the most frequently encountered falsified polypeptide drugs on the Belgian market. Talanta 2018; 188:795-807. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2018.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Revised: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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17
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Fittler A, Vida RG, Rádics V, Botz L. A challenge for healthcare but just another opportunity for illegitimate online sellers: Dubious market of shortage oncology drugs. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0203185. [PMID: 30153304 PMCID: PMC6112670 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2017] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Drug shortages mean a challenge to healthcare systems. Exposed patients or health care providers may seek alternative resources for these products online. The purpose of our study was to analyze the online availability of oncology shortage drugs at national and at international levels in 2014 and 2016. Methods We tested the online accessibility of oncology shortage drugs by simulating the Internet search method of patients. Search results were evaluated according to operational, distributional, and patient safety characteristics. Results In 2014 and 2016 all (100%) antineoplastic agents affected by shortages were available on the Internet without medical prescription. The number of relevant websites among search engine results has decreased from 112 to 98, while online vendors actually offering oncology shortage drugs for sale has risen from 66.1% to 80.6% within relevant websites in the two evaluated years. None of the online sellers were classified as legitimate or accredited by LegitScript and VIPPS online pharmacy verification databases. Conclusion According to our findings shortage oncology drugs are widely available online. To manage shortages and illegal Internet trade national and international standardized shortage reporting and information systems, regularly updated Internet pharmacy verification databases are needed. As well, institutional procurement and medication use review policies are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- András Fittler
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Central Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
- * E-mail:
| | - Róbert György Vida
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Central Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Valter Rádics
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Central Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Lajos Botz
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Central Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
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18
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Fittler A, Vida RG, Káplár M, Botz L. Consumers Turning to the Internet Pharmacy Market: Cross-Sectional Study on the Frequency and Attitudes of Hungarian Patients Purchasing Medications Online. J Med Internet Res 2018; 20:e11115. [PMID: 30135053 PMCID: PMC6125612 DOI: 10.2196/11115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background During the past two decades, the internet has become an accepted way to purchase products and services. Buying medications online are no exception. Besides its benefits, several patient safety risks are linked to the purchase of medicines outside the traditional supply chain. Although thousands of internet pharmacies are accessible on the web, the actual size of the market is unknown. Currently, there is limited data available on the use of internet pharmacies, the number, and attitude of people obtaining medications and other health products from the internet. Objective This study aims to gather information on the frequency and attitudes of patients purchasing medications online in a nationally representative sample of outpatients. Attitudes towards main supply chain channels, perceived benefits, and disadvantages of influencing online medication purchase are evaluated. Methods A cross-sectional explorative study using a personally administered survey was conducted in a representative sample of Hungarian outpatients in 2018. Results A total of 1055 outpatients completed the survey (response rate 77.23%). The mean age was 45 years, and 456 (43.22%) reported having chronic health conditions. The majority (872/1055, 82.65%) of the respondents were aware that medications could be obtained online, but only 44 (4.17%) used the internet for previous medication purchases. Attitudes towards the different pharmaceutical supply chain retail channels showed significant differences (P<.001), respondents accepted retail pharmacy units as the most appropriate source of medications while rejected internet pharmacies. Respondents were asked to evaluate 9 statements regarding the potential benefits and disadvantages about the online medicine purchase, and based on the computed relative attitude rate there is a weak still significant tendency toward rejection (P<.001). Correspondence of demographic factors, internet usage behavior, and prospective online drug purchase attitude was evaluated. Respondents who use the internet more and purchase goods online will be more likely to buy medications online. Furthermore, youth and education will determine the medication purchase behavior. Conclusions Many patients will purchase medications on the internet in the future. Currently, there is an increased risk of patients buying products from illegal sites because these dominate the global online pharmacy market. Consequently, improved patient-provider communication and promotion campaigns are needed to inform the public about the safe use of internet pharmacies, as these initiatives can directly prevent patient safety threats.
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Affiliation(s)
- András Fittler
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Róbert György Vida
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Mátyás Káplár
- Institute of Psychology, Faculty of Humanities, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
| | - Lajos Botz
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary
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19
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Yeo LM, McCrea RS, Roberts DL. A novel application of mark-recapture to examine behaviour associated with the online trade in elephant ivory. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3048. [PMID: 28289565 PMCID: PMC5346282 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The illegal trade in elephant ivory is driving the unlawful killing of elephants such that populations are now suffering unsustainable reductions. The internet is increasingly being used as a platform to conduct illegal wildlife trade, including elephant ivory. As a globally accessible medium the internet is as highly attractive to those involved in the illegal trade as it is challenging to regulate. Characterising the online illegal wildlife (ivory) trade is complex, yet key to informing enforcement activities. We applied mark-recapture to investigate behaviour associated with the online trade in elephant ivory on eBay UK as a generalist online marketplace. Our results indicate that trade takes place via eBay UK, despite its policy prohibiting this, and that two distinct trading populations exist, characterised by the pattern of their ivory sales. We suggest these may represent a large number of occasional (or non-commercial) sellers and a smaller number of dedicated (or commercial) sellers. Directing resource towards reducing the volume of occasional sales, such as through education, would enable greater focus to be placed upon characterising the extent and value of the illegal, "commercial" online ivory trade. MRC has the potential to characterise the illegal trade in ivory and diverse wildlife commodities traded using various online platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lydia M Yeo
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, School of Anthropology & Conservation, University of Kent , Canterbury , Kent , United Kingdom
| | - Rachel S McCrea
- Statistical Ecology @ Kent, School of Mathematics, Statistics and Actuarial Science, University of Kent , Canterbury , Kent , United Kingdom
| | - David L Roberts
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, School of Anthropology & Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, United Kingdom; Interdisciplinary Centre for Cyber Security Research, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, United Kingdom
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