Intergenerational educational mobility on general mental health and depressive symptoms in young women

The longitudinal association between adverse childhood experiences, childhood socioeconomic status, and lung function among middle-aged and older adults

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to investigate the association between adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), childhood socioeconomic status (SES) with lung function among general Chinese middle-aged and older adults.

METHODS

Participants at baseline were 9052 individuals aged 45 years old and above from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS), a population-based cohort of Chinese adults. Analyses were conducted with data from three waves (2011, 2013, and 2015). The ACEs included five threat-related indicators (i.e., physical abuse, household substance abuse, domestic violence, unsafe neighborhood, and bullying) and five deprivation-related adversities (i.e., emotional neglect, household mental illness, incarcerated household member, parental separation or divorce, and parental death). The cumulative score of threat-related and deprivation-related ACEs was used for analysis. Lung function was assessed by peak expiratory flow (PEF). Two-level linear mixed growth models were used to evaluate the longitudinal association between and ACEs, childhood SES, and PEF.

RESULTS

Participants with more than three deprivation-related ACEs were significantly associated with lower PEF (b = -11.45 L/min, 95%CI: -18.40, -4.49) after adjusting for multiple confounding factors. Threat-related ACEs were not associated with PFF. Father's illiterate education predicted lower lung function (b = -8.49 L/min, 95%CI: -11.68, -5.31) for all middle-aged and older adults while mother's illiterate education was only significantly associated with PEF among the men (b = -9.21 L/min, 95%CI: -18.20, -0.22), and middle-aged adults (b = -7.96 L/min, 95%CI: -14.35, -1.57).

DISCUSSION

ACEs and disadvantaged childhood SES are important predictors of lower lung function during adulthood. Reducing ACEs and improving childhood SES may be beneficial for long-term health development.

First-generation college graduates have similar depressive symptoms in midlife as multi-generational college graduates

Purpose

Higher education may protect an individual against depressive symptoms, yet, disadvantaged socioeconomic status (SES) during childhood, often measured by lower parental education, may put them at higher risk for depressive symptoms later in life. This study evaluates if midlife depression is similar for first-generation and multi-generation college graduates.

Methods

For US Health and Retirement Study (HRS) participants ages 55-63 (N = 16,752), we defined a 4-category exposure from parents' (highest of mother or father's) and participant's own years of education, with 16 years indicating college completion: multi-gen (both ≥ 16 years: reference); first-gen (parents <16; own ≥ 16); only parent(s) (parents ≥ 16; own <16); and neither (both <16) college graduates across three birth cohorts. We used linear regressions to evaluate relationships between college completion and depressive symptoms measured by an 8-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies - Depression (CES-D) scale. Models pooled over time evaluated differences by sex, race/ethnicity, and birthplace.

Results

First-gen and multi-gen college graduates averaged similar depressive symptoms in midlife (β : 0.01; 95% CI: 0.15, 0.13). Results were similar by sex and race/ethnicity.

Conclusion

Consistent with resource substitution theory, college completion may offset the deleterious effects of lower parental education on midlife depressive symptoms for first-generation graduates.

Social mobility and mental health: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Socioeconomic status (SES) is a robust correlate of mental health, and emerging research indicates that life course trajectories of SES (i.e., social mobility) may be more predictive for health outcomes than point-in-time SES assessments. This paper presents five primary meta-analyses to determine how mental health differs between social mobility groups. We conducted a systematic review of PsycINFO, Web of Science, and PubMed for studies of social mobility and mental health. We used random-effects multilevel meta-analyses to compare mental health problems between individuals who experienced upward mobility, downward mobility, stable high SES, and stable low SES. We included data from 21 studies and 157,763 unique participants yielding 105 effect sizes. Upwardly mobile participants experienced more mental health problems than stable high SES participants (d = 0.11), fewer mental health problems than stable low SES participants (d = -0.24), and fewer mental health problems than downwardly mobile participants (d = -0.17). Downwardly mobile individuals experienced more mental health problems than stable high SES participants (d = 0.26) and fewer mental health problems than stable low SES participants (d = -0.10). Subgroup analyses revealed that the magnitude of effects did not differ by continent of study, type of generational mobility (intergenerational vs. intragenerational), or SES indicator. Meta-regressions with continuous moderators (age, gender, race, study quality) were also non-significant. Taken together, these results indicate that both upwardly and downwardly mobile individuals experience more mental health problems than those who are persistently advantaged, and they both experience fewer mental health problems than those who are persistently disadvantaged. Our findings suggest that while current SES has a stronger association with adult mental health than childhood SES, it is important to also consider the impact of early life and prior generation SES to account for lingering effects of early disadvantage.

Social mobility and partnering. The salience of mobility homogamy

Does intergenerational social mobility influence individuals' partner choices? If so, are the socially mobile more likely to partner with someone from their origin or destination class? Or do they, if torn between the socio-cultural milieu of their well-known origins and less familiar destination, engage in 'mobility homogamy', opting for similarly mobile partners? The impact of social mobility on partner choice has received scant scholarly attention and, yet, it is an issue that is likely to enhance our understanding of partnering dynamics. Exploiting the German SOEP panel data, our principal finding is that the socially mobile are more likely to match with someone from their destination-rather than origin class. This suggests that the influence of destination-class resources and networks outweighs that of social origins. However, once we take into account also the partner's mobility history, it turns out that the upwardly mobile partner disproportionally with someone who is similarly upwardly mobile. Our analyses provide scant support for the social exchange thesis that individuals might seek to complement a high social destination class with a partner from high social origins; instead, the dynamics that we identify point to the saliency of social networks, individuals' resources, and a general preference for homogamy.

The Myth of Social Mobility: Subjective Social Mobility and Mental Health

A common assumption is that upward mobility produces positive psychological outcomes. However, status-based identity framework and social class worldview model propose that perceived social mobility in either direction will lead to increased distress. Based on this claim, we examined relations among subjective social mobility, life satisfaction, and mental health using polynomial regression with response surface mapping. In Study 1, groups that experienced both subjective downward and upward mobility reported more depressive symptomatology than groups that remained in middle or upper social statuses in a sample of 567 adults. We did not find significant relations between subjective social mobility and life satisfaction. In Study 2, both groups that experienced subjective downward and upward mobility reported more depressive and academic distress symptomatology than groups that remained in middle or upper social social statuses in a sample of 7,598 clients from college counseling center data. The results provide insights relevant to multicultural counseling and training.

Intergenerational Educational Pathways and Self-Rated Health in Adolescence and Young Adulthood: Results of the German KiGGS Cohort

Health differences in social mobility are often analysed by income differences or different occupational positions. However, in early adulthood many young people still have very diffuse income situations and are not always fully integrated into the labour market despite many having finished school. This article focusses on the link between intergenerational educational pathways and self-rated health (SRH) among young adults considering their SRH in adolescence. The data source used is the German KiGGS cohort study. The analysis sample comprises 2175 young people at baseline (t0: 2003⁻2006 age 14⁻17) and first follow-up (t1: 2009⁻2012 age 19⁻24). Combining parent's and young people's highest school degree, the data can trace patterns of intergenerational educational pathways (constant high level of education, upward mobility, downward mobility, constant low level of education). Young people's SRH was recorded at t0 and t1. During adolescence and young adulthood, participants were less likely to report poor SRH if they had a constant high intergenerational education or if they were upwardly mobile. The differences were particularly striking among young adults: average marginal effects (AME) for poor SRH showed much higher risk among downwardly mobile compared to peers with an intergenerational constant high education (AME: 0.175 [0.099; 0.251]), while the upwardly mobile had a significantly lower risk for less than good SRH than peers with an intergenerational constant low level of education (AME: -0.058 [-0.113; -0.004]). In the context of great societal demands and personal developmental needs, educational differences in health tend to increase in young adulthood. Public Health should pay more attention to educational and health inequalities in young adulthood.

'Falling from grace' and 'rising from rags': Intergenerational educational mobility and depressive symptoms

With this study, we make a number of contributions to the ongoing debate on the implications of intergenerational mobility for individuals' health. First, instead of focusing on absolute intergenerational mobility in educational attainment, we analyse varying implications of relative intergenerational mobility for depressive symptoms by considering the distribution of educational credentials separately in the parental and offspring generations. Second, unlike conventional approaches, which predominantly emphasise that upward and downward mobility has a negative effect, we argue that upward mobility might improve individuals' mental well-being and that this effect may vary by gender. Third, we use statistical approach which was designed specifically to study the consequences of intergenerational mobility and does not conflate mobility effects with effects of the positions of origin and destination. Using the 2012-2014 waves of the European Social Survey and data for 52,773 individuals nested in 28 societies, we fit the diagonal reference models with both individuals' short- and long-range experiences of intergenerational educational mobility. The results indicate that upward and downward mobility is associated with, respectively, lower and higher levels of depressive symptoms, as measured with the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale, and that these effects are only observed among men.

Effect of intergenerational educational mobility on health of Indian women

This study aims to analyse the relationship between intergenerational educational mobility and the overall health of the Indian women. It uses a nationally representative survey, India Human Development Survey (IHDS) 2011–12, and logistic regressions to study this relationship. The sample comprises of women aged 45 years and older. We find that the women experiencing upward intergenerational educational mobility (vis-a-vis their mothers) have significantly higher chances of experiencing good overall health compared to the women who are having same or lesser level of education as that of their mothers. Besides, women suffering from short term or major morbidity have remarkably lower chances of having overall good health. Also, women from rural India have significantly lesser chances of having overall good health as compared to that of urban areas. Further, Muslim women have lesser chances of having overall good health as that of women from other religious categories. Moreover, there is a significant variation in the overall health of women as we move from the eastern region to the western region of India.

Determinants of Intergenerational Downward Mobility in the Netherlands

Several studies have shown that Dutch society has become more open in the last few decades as a result of increasing opportunities for upward social mobility. However, recently it has been observed that the likelihood of downward social mobility has increased for the youngest (male) birth cohorts in the Netherlands. Despite this recent finding, social stratification research has paid little attention to test explanations of downward mobility. This article tries to fill in this knowledge gap by testing three theoretical perspectives that aim to explain intergenerational downward occupational mobility of individuals. In addition, we examine historical developments to study whether the role of these explanations have changed over time. To test the predictive validity of these perspectives, we use data from the Family Survey Dutch Population 2009 (N = 1423). The empirical results, first of all, indicate that individuals who were born in younger birth cohorts are more likely to experience downward occupational mobility than individuals, who were born in older cohorts. We thus replicate earlier findings for the Netherlands. Secondly, we find that cognitive skills and, especially, educational attainment provide individuals significant protection against downward mobility. These findings are mainly in line with the meritocratic perspective. Thirdly, the results reveal that the role of the presumed explanations of downward mobility has not changed over time.

Social class, social mobility and risk of psychiatric disorder--a population-based longitudinal study

Objectives

This study explored how adult social class and social mobility between parental and own adult social class is related to psychiatric disorder.

Material and Methods

In this prospective cohort study, over 1 million employed Swedes born in 1949-1959 were included. Information on parental class (1960) and own mid-life social class (1980 and 1990) was retrieved from the censuses and categorised as High Non-manual, Low Non-manual, High Manual, Low Manual and Self-employed. After identifying adult class, individuals were followed for psychiatric disorder by first admission of schizophrenia, alcoholism and drug dependency, affective psychosis and neurosis or personality disorder (N=24 659) from the Swedish Patient Register. We used Poisson regression analysis to estimate first admission rates of psychiatric disorder per 100 000 person-years and relative risks (RR) by adult social class (treated as a time-varying covariate). The RRs of psychiatric disorder among the Non-manual and Manual classes were also estimated by magnitude of social mobility.

Results

The rate of psychiatric disorder was significantly higher among individuals belonging to the Low manual class as compared with the High Non-manual class. Compared to High Non-manual class, the risk for psychiatric disorder ranged from 2.07 (Low Manual class) to 1.38 (Low Non-manual class). Parental class had a minor impact on these estimates. Among the Non-manual and Manual classes, downward mobility was associated with increased risk and upward mobility with decreased risk of psychiatric disorder. In addition, downward mobility was inversely associated with the magnitude of social mobility, independent of parental class.

Conclusions

Independently of parental social class, the risk of psychiatric disorder increases with increased downward social mobility and decreases with increased upward mobility.