Cryopreserved Morulae can be used to Efficiently Generate Germline-transmitting Chimeras by Blastocyst Injection

New Animal Models for Understanding FMRP Functions and FXS Pathology

Fragile X encompasses a range of genetic conditions, all of which result as a function of changes within the FMR1 gene and abnormal production and/or expression of the FMR1 gene products. Individuals with Fragile X syndrome (FXS), the most common heritable form of intellectual disability, have a full-mutation sequence (>200 CGG repeats) which brings about transcriptional silencing of FMR1 and loss of FMR protein (FMRP). Despite considerable progress in our understanding of FXS, safe, effective, and reliable treatments that either prevent or reduce the severity of the FXS phenotype have not been approved. While current FXS animal models contribute their own unique understanding to the molecular, cellular, physiological, and behavioral deficits associated with FXS, no single animal model is able to fully recreate the FXS phenotype. This review will describe the status and rationale in the development, validation, and utility of three emerging animal model systems for FXS, namely the nonhuman primate (NHP), Mongolian gerbil, and chicken. These developing animal models will provide a sophisticated resource in which the deficits in complex functions of perception, action, and cognition in the human disorder are accurately reflected and aid in the successful translation of novel therapeutics and interventions to the clinic setting.

Altered gene expression profiles in mouse tetraploid blastocysts

In this study, it was demonstrated that tetraploid-derived blastocyst embryos had very few Oct4-positive cells at the mid-blastocyst stage and that the inner cell mass at biomarkers Oct4, Sox2 and Klf4 was expressed at less than 10% of the level observed in diploid blastocysts. In contrast, trophectoderm-related gene transcripts showed an approximately 10 to 40% increase. Of 32,996 individual mouse genes evaluated by microarray, 50 genes were differentially expressed between tetraploid or diploid and parthenote embryos at the blastocyst stage (P<0.05). Of these 50 genes, 28 were more highly expressed in tetraploid-derived blastocysts, whereas 22 were more highly downregulated. However, some genes involved in receptor activity, cell adhesion molecule, calcium ion binding, protein biosynthesis, redox processes, transport, and transcription showed a significant decrease or increase in gene expression in the tetraploid-derived blastocyst embryos. Thus, microarray analysis can be used as a tool to screen for underlying defects responsible for the development of tetraploid-derived embryos.

Chromosome remodeling and differentiation of tetraploid embryos during preimplantation development

Although it is known that the tetraploid embryo contributes only to the placenta, the question of why tetraploid embryos differentiate into placenta remains unclear. To study the effect of electrofusion on the development of mouse tetraploid oocytes, mouse two-cell embryos were fused and cultured in vitro in Chatot-Ziomek-Bavister medium. After electrofusion, two chromosome sets from the tetraploid blastomere were individually duplicated before nuclear fusion. At 8-10 hr after electrofusion, each chromosome set was condensing and the nuclear membrane was breaking down. Around 12-14 hr after electrofusion, the two chromosome sets had combined together and had reached the second mitotic metaphase, at this point with 8n sets of chromosomes. Interestingly, we discovered that expression of OCT4, an inner cell mass cells biomarker, is lost by the tetraploid expanded blastocysts, but that CDX2, a trophectoderm cells biomarker, is strongly expressed at this stage. This observation provides evidence clarifying why tetraploid embryos contribute only to trophectoderm.

Cryopreservation of mammalian embryos: Advancement of putting life on hold

Rodent transgenesis and human-assisted reproductive programs involve multistep handling of preimplantation embryos. The efficacy of production and quality of results from conventionally scheduled programs are limited by temporal constraints other than the quality and quantities of embryos per se. The emergence of vitrification, a water ice-free cryopreservation technique, as a reliable way to arrest further growth of preimplantation embryos, provides an option to eliminate the time constraint. In this article, current and potential applications of cryopreservation to facilitate laboratory animal experiments, colony management, and human-assisted reproductive programs are reviewed. Carrier devices developed for vitrification in the last two decades are compared with an emphasis on their physical properties that infer cooling rate of samples and sterility assurance. Biological impacts of improved cryopreservation on preimplantation embryos are also discussed.