Vascular calcification score on plain radiographs of the feet as a predictor of peripheral arterial disease in patients with chronic kidney disease

The predictive value of vascular calcification on plain radiographs of the ankle to diagnose diabetes mellitus

INTRODUCTION

There are nearly 500,000 people with undiagnosed diabetes mellitus in the UK. A common complication of diabetes is vascular calcification. The incidental finding of vascular calcification on plain radiographs in patients with undiagnosed diabetes has the potential to alter patient management. We hypothesised that the presence of vascular calcification on plain radiographs of the foot may predict the diagnosis of diabetes and aimed to determine the positive predictive value of vascular calcification to diagnose diabetes.

METHODS

A retrospective case control study compared 130 diabetic patients to 130 non-diabetic patients that were matched for age and gender. The presence of vascular calcification in anterior, posterior or plantar vessels was measured on plain radiographs. McNemar's Chi-squared test and positive predictive values were calculated. Conditional logistic regression models estimated the association between calcification and diabetes RESULTS: The overall mean age was 58.0 % and 31.5 % were females. 89.2 % of those with diabetes had calcification present, and 23.1 % in those who did not have diabetes had calcification. McNemar's test for independence gives p < 0.001. Calcification in both anterior and posterior vessels predicts diabetes with a positive predictive value of 91.2 % (95 % CI 76.9-97.0 %). The odds ratio for having diabetes is 78 (95 % CI: 7.8 - 784) times higher in a person who has calcification in the blood vessels of their ankle than in a person without calcification after adjusting for confounders CONCLUSION: This study has demonstrated that vascular calcification in the anterior and posterior blood vessels is over 90 % predictive of a diagnosis of diabetes. This screening test could be used in future clinics when interpreting radiographs, aiding in the diagnosis of diabetes and altering patient management.

Duplex ultrasound derived maximal systolic acceleration can be a reliable and rapid alternative to ankle brachial pressure indices for the diabetic population with lower extremity arterial disease; a prospective, observational cohort study

Objectives: Ankle brachial pressure index (ABPI) is limited for diabetic patients. This can have costly impacts upon patient's quality of life along with healthcare budgets, with diabetic care equating to approximately 10% of NHS expenditure.¹¹ We aimed to determine whether ultrasound waveform parameters are an alternative for quantifying lower extremity peripheral arterial disease (PAD) where ABPI is unreliable. Design: This was a prospective, observational study. Waveform parameters, systolic rise time (SRT), maximal systolic acceleration (AccMax) and peak systolic velocity (PSV) were recorded at ankle and compared to the ABPI and an aorta-ankle duplex ultrasound scan (DUS) as gold standard. Setting: Measurements were obtained by a Clinical Vascular Scientist at the Royal Free Hospital. Participants: Participants (≥18yrs) with known PAD, but without previous vascular intervention were allocated to non-diabetic control (n = 24) and diabetic test groups (n = 22). Outcome measures: The primary outcome measure was the correlation of novel ultrasound derived indices to PAD severity. The secondary outcome was the efficacy of this correlation in the diabetic population. Results: AccMax was most powerful in detecting PAD in both groups when compared to ABPI in the controls (r = 0.805; p < 0.01) and to DUS in control and test groups (r = −0.633 to −0.643; p < 0.01). In the test group, PSV did not consistently quantify PAD. SRT measurements were inconclusive throughout. Conclusion: AccMax is a rapid alternative tool for diagnosing PAD in diabetic patients. With further research, this simple test may prove useful for monitoring PAD progression in patients unsuitable for ABPI, reducing the need for lengthy repeat duplex scans.

Association of infrapopliteal medial arterial calcification with lower-limb amputations in high-risk patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Medial arterial calcification (MAC) is a known risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity. The association between vascular calcifications and poor outcome in several vascular districts suggest that infrapopliteal MAC could be a risk factor for lower-limb amputation (LLA). This study's objective is to review the available literature focusing on the association between infrapopliteal MAC and LLA in high-risk patients. The PubMed and Embase databases were systematically searched. We selected original studies reporting the association between infrapopliteal MAC and LLAs in patients with diabetes and/or peripheral artery disease (PAD). Estimates were pooled using either a fixed-effects or a random-effects model meta-analysis. Heterogeneity was evaluated using the Q and I² statistics. Publication bias was investigated with a funnel plot and Egger test. The trim-and-fill method was designed to estimate the possibly missing studies. Influence analysis was conducted to search studies influencing the final result. Test of moderators was used to compare estimates in good versus non-good-quality studies. Fifteen articles satisfied the selection criteria (n = 6489; median follow-up: 36 months). MAC was significantly associated with LLAs (pooled adjusted risk ratio (RR): 2.27; 95% CI: 1.89-2.74; I² = 25.3%, Q-test: p = 0.17). This association was kept in the subgroup of patients with diabetes (RR: 2.37; 95% CI: 1.76-3.20) and patients with PAD (RR: 2.48; 95% CI: 1.72-3.58). The association was maintained if considering as outcome only major amputations (RR: 2.11; 95% CI: 1.46-3.06). Our results show that infrapopliteal MAC is associated with LLAs, thus suggesting MAC as a possible new marker of the at-risk limb.

A Novel Scoring System for Small Artery Disease and Medial Arterial Calcification Is Strongly Associated With Major Adverse Limb Events in Patients With Chronic Limb-Threatening Ischemia

Purpose:

To evaluate the roles of small artery disease (SAD) and medial arterial calcification (MAC) in patients with chronic limb-threatening ischemia (CLTI) and to identify any correlation between these factors and peripheral artery disease (PAD) or outcomes after treatment.

Materials and Methods:

A retrospective review was conducted of 259 limbs with tissue loss among 223 CLTI patients (mean age 72.2±11.4 years; 194 men) having an angiographic foot vessel study, foot radiography, and at least 6 months of follow-up after intervention. SAD and MAC were quantified using a 3-level score (0=absent, 1=moderate, 2=severe) based on angiography for SAD and foot radiographs for MAC. The MAC score was validated and compared with the SAD score, evaluating their associations with PAD distribution and clinical outcomes.

Results:

Based on the MAC score, the 259 limbs were classified as 55 group 0 (21.2%), 89 group 1 (34.4%), and 115 group 2 (44.4%). The SAD score stratified the 259 limbs as 67 group 0 (25.9%), 76 group 1 (29.3%), and 116 group 2 (44.8%). Interobserver reproducibility of the MAC score was high (correlation coefficient 0.96). Sensitivity and specificity of the MAC score in detecting SAD was 100% and 98.1%, respectively, in SAD groups 0 and 2 vs 99.1% and 92.7%, respectively, for SAD group 1. PAD was more proximal in MAC and SAD groups 0 and more distal in groups 1 and 2. Both MAC and SAD scores were able to predict clinical endpoints. Multivariable analysis demonstrated that the MAC score represents an independent risk factor for adverse limb events.

Conclusion:

SAD and MAC must be considered expressions of the same obstructing disease, able to adversely impact the fate of CLTI patients. SAD and MAC scores are powerful prognostic indicators of major adverse limb events in CLTI patients.

Renal Function as a Predictor of Early Transmetatarsal Amputation Failure

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major concern in patients with foot disease because it is associated with high rates of neuropathy, peripheral vascular disease, and poor wound healing. The purpose of this study was to evaluate renal dysfunction as a risk factor for reamputation after initial transmetatarsal amputation (TMA). Patients who underwent a TMA were retrospectively identified in the American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database. Of 2018 patients, reamputation after TMA occurred in 4.4%. End-stage renal disease (ESRD) was associated with 100% increased odds of TMA failure (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 2.00; 95% CI = 1.10, 3.52), 128% increased odds of major amputation (adjusted OR = 2.28; 95% CI = 1.27, 3.96), and 182% increased odds of 30-day mortality (adjusted OR = 2.82; 95% CI = 1.69, 4.64). In addition, white blood cell count >10 000/mm³ and deep infection at the time of surgery were independently associated with TMA failure. In conclusion, severe renal dysfunction is associated with TMA failure in the short-term, perioperative period. There was no incremental increase in risk of TMA failure with worsening level of renal function before ESRD. A multidisciplinary approach should be implemented in patients with CKD to prevent foot-related pathologies that may necessitate lower-extremity amputation. Levels of Evidence: Level III: Retrospective cohort study.

Supplementary nutrients for prevention of vascular calcification in patients with chronic kidney disease

Vascular calcification (VC) and malnutrition associated with cardiovascular disease are common in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) treated with dialysis. VC, which reflects vascular aging, and malnutrition are also encountered in the non-CKD elderly population. This similarity of clinical findings suggests that the progression of CKD is related to aging and the existence of a causal relationship between VC and malnutrition. To retard renal progression, a low- or very-low-protein diet is usually recommended for CKD patients. Dietary education may induce malnutrition and deficiency of important nutrients, such as vitamins K and D. Menaquinone-7, a type of vitamin K2, is under investigation for inhibiting VC in elderly patients without CKD, as well as for prevention of VC in patients with CKD. Nutritional vitamin D, such as cholecalciferol, may be considered to decrease the required dose of active vitamin D, which increases the risk of VC due to increased calcium and phosphate loads. Omega-3 fatty acids are important nutrients and their ability to inhibit VC needs to be evaluated in clinical trials. This review focuses on the ability of supplementary nutrients to prevent VC in patients with CKD, in whom dietary restriction is essential.

Abdominal aorta and pelvic artery calcifications on plain radiographs may predict mortality in chronic kidney disease, hemodialysis and renal transplantation

PURPOSE

Vascular calcification is common in chronic kidney disease (CKD) and predicts poor patient outcomes. While computed tomography is the gold standard for evaluation of vascular calcification, plain radiograph offers a simpler and less costly alternative. The calcification of abdominal aorta, iliac and femoral arteries has been evaluated by plain radiograph, but the data on their outcome predictabilities are still limited. The present study investigated the role of abdominal aortic calcification (AAC) and pelvic arterial calcification (PAC) in predicting overall morality in non-dialysis CKD stages 2-5 (CKD 2-5), maintenance hemodialysis (HD) and long-term kidney transplant (KT) patients.

METHODS

Four hundred and nineteen patients were included. Lateral abdominal and pelvic radiographs were obtained. The degree of AAC and PAC was evaluated according to the methods described previously by Kaupplia et al. and Adragao et al. Patients were followed prospectively for 5 years.

RESULTS

AAC and PAC scores correlated well with the correlation coefficients of 0.442 for CKD 2-5, 0.438 for HD and 0.586 for KT (p < 0.001). Patients with AAC score > 6 or PAC score > 1 were older, showed higher prevalence of DM and had higher serum phosphate and PTH but lower serum albumin and eGFR. A more severe degree of AAC was associated with an increase in KT duration, whereas a more severe degree of PAC was associated with worsening kidney function and prolonged dialysis vintage. Kaplan-Meier survival curves revealed AAC score > 6 as a significant predictor of all-cause mortality in CKD 2-5 but not in HD or KT, whereas PAC score > 1 was a significant predictor of all-cause mortality in all three populations. After adjusting for age, the predictability of AAC was lost, whereas PAC remained an independent predictor of mortality in all three populations. Adjustments for cardiovascular and CKD risk factors including age, gender, BMI, DM, serum albumin, calcium and phosphate attenuated the predictability of PAC in HD but not in CKD 2-5 or KT patients.

CONCLUSION

PAC was better than AAC in predicting mortality in CKD, HD and KT patients.

Association of arterial calcification with chronic limb ischemia in patients with peripheral artery disease

OBJECTIVE

Arterial calcification is associated with an increased risk of limb events, including amputation. The association between calcification in lower extremity arteries and the severity of ischemia, however, has not been assessed. We thus sought to determine whether the extent of peripheral artery calcification (PAC) was correlated with Rutherford chronic ischemia categories and hypothesized that it could independently contribute to worsening limb status.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed all patients presenting with symptomatic peripheral artery disease who underwent evaluation by contrast and noncontrast computed tomography scan of the lower extremities as part of their assessment. Demographic and cardiovascular risk factors were recorded. Rutherford ischemia categories were determined based on history, physical examination, and noninvasive testing. PAC scores and the extent of occlusive disease were measured on noncontrast and contrast computed tomography scans, respectively. Spearman's correlation testing was used to assess the relationship between occlusive disease and calcification scores. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with increasing Rutherford ischemia categories.

RESULTS

There were 116 patients identified, including 75 with claudication and 41 with critical limb ischemia. In univariate regression, there was a significant association between increasing Rutherford ischemia category and age, diabetes duration, hypertension, the occlusion score, and PAC. There was a moderate correlation between the extent of occlusive disease and PAC scores (Spearman's R = 0.6). In multivariable analysis, only tobacco use (odds ratio [OR], 3.1; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.2-8.3), diabetes duration (OR, 1.04; 95% CI, 1.01-1.08), and the calcification score (OR, 2.1; 95% CI, 1.4-3.2) maintained an association with increasing ischemia categories after adjusting for relevant cardiovascular risk factors and the extent of occlusive disease.

CONCLUSIONS

PAC is independently associated with increased ischemia categories in patients with peripheral artery disease. Further research aimed at understanding the relationship between arterial calcification and worsening limb ischemia is warranted.

Role of different imaging modalities of vascular calcification in predicting outcomes in chronic kidney disease

Vascular calcification (VC) is common among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). The severity of VC is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular events and mortality. Risk factors for VC include traditional cardiovascular risk factors as well as CKD-related risk factors such as increased calcium and phosphate load. VC is observed in arteries of all sizes from small arterioles to aorta, both in the intima and the media of arterial wall. Several imaging techniques have been utilized in the evaluation of the extent and the severity of VC. Plain radiographs are simple and readily available but with the limitation of decreased sensitivity and subjective and semi-quantitative quantification methods. Mammography, especially useful among women, offers a unique way to study breast arterial calcification, which is largely a medial-type calcification. Ultrasonography is suitable for calcification in superficial arteries. Analyses of wall thickness and lumen size are also possible. Computed tomography (CT) scan, the gold standard, is the most sensitive technique for evaluation of VC. CT scan of coronary artery calcification is not only useful for cardiovascular risk stratification but also offers an accurate and an objective analysis of the severity and progression.

Association of Ankle-Brachial Index and Aortic Arch Calcification with Overall and Cardiovascular Mortality in Hemodialysis

Peripheral artery occlusive disease and vascular calcification are highly prevalent in hemodialysis (HD) patients, however the association of the combination of ankle-brachial index (ABI) and aortic arch calcification (AoAC) with clinical outcomes in patients undergoing HD is unknown. In this study, we investigated whether the combination of ABI and AoAC is independently associated with overall and cardiovascular mortality in HD patients. The median follow-up period was 5.7 years. Calcification of the aortic arch was assessed by chest X-ray. Forty-seven patients died including 24 due to cardiovascular causes during the follow-up period. The study patients were stratified into four groups according to an ABI < 0.95 or ≥0.95 and an AoAC score of >4 or ≤4 according to receiver operating characteristic curve. Those with an ABI < 0.95 and AoAC > 4 (vs. ABI ≥ 0.95 and AoAC score ≤ 4) were associated with overall (hazard ratio [HR], 4.913; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.932 to 12.497; p = 0.001) and cardiovascular (HR, 3.531; 95% CI, 1.070 to 11.652; p = 0.038) mortality in multivariable analysis. The combination of a low ABI and increased AoAC was associated with increased overall and cardiovascular mortality in patients undergoing HD.

Vascular calcification on plain radiographs is related with the severity of lesions detected by coronary angiography in dialysis patients

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a primary cause of mortality and morbidity in dialysis patients. However, it is difficult to select the proper point for coronary angiographic procedure, because dialysis patients frequently do not display typical symptoms. Vascular calcification (VC) scores of artery or aorta on plain radiographs are associated with CAD events and may be predictive of CAD in dialysis patients. Therefore, we evaluated whether high or meaningful VC scores on plain radiographs are related with the severity of lesions detected by coronary angiography (CAG) in dialysis patients. We retrospectively enrolled dialysis patients who underwent CAG and checked several plain radiographs within one year before or after CAG. Significant VC is defined as high or meaningful VC scores, such as long abdominal aortic calcification and medial artery calcification on feet. Of all 55 patients, 41 patients (74.5%) exhibited significant VC on plain radiographs and 23 patients (41.8%) underwent stent insertion. Among the 23 patients, longer stents were used in 18 patients with significant VC (34.1 ± 19.5 mm vs. 16.6 ± 15.2 mm, P = 0.029). Patients with significant VC showed higher prevalence rate of severe coronary artery calcification (P = 0.007) and diffuse/tubular stenosis (P = 0.012), detected by CAG, than those without significant VC. Thus, high or meaningful VC scores on plain radiographs were associated with the degree of calcification or stenosis detected by CAG. In conclusion, VC scores on plain radiographs may be predictive of calcification or stenosis of coronary artery before CAG in dialysis patients.

Vascular calcification in Mexican hemodialysis patients

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Vascular calcification (VC) is a predictor of poor survival and cardiovascular outcome in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients; however, there is scarce information of VC in Latin America, and virtually no data in our setting. We undertook this study to evaluate the prevalence and characteristics of VC in a hemodialysis (HD) population from western Mexico and to determine possible associated factors.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study performed in 52 patients. VC was evaluated using plain X-ray films (Adragao's score) of hands and pelvis; clinical and biochemical variables were also collected. Statistical analysis was carried out with Student t and χ(2) tests performed as appropriate and logistic regression to determine predictors of VC.

RESULTS

Mean age was 43 years, 48% were female, 23% had diabetes mellitus (DM), and median time on dialysis was 46 months. Percentage prevalence was 52% with a mean calcification score of 2.0 ± 2.6; 23% of patients had severe calcification. VC was present in about 23-37% among the different vascular territories evaluated (radial, digital, femoral and iliac). Patients with calcification were significantly older, had a higher frequency of DM, higher alkaline phosphatase and lower HDL lipoproteins than those without VC. In the multivariate analysis, VC in these patients was significantly predicted only by an older age (OR [95% CI]: 1.15 [1.01-1.31], p = 0.04); lower HDL-cholesterol and higher alkaline phosphatase were marginal predictors.

CONCLUSIONS

Half of our HD patients had VC. Territories of radial, iliac, femoral and digital arteries were roughly equally affected, and 25% of patients had a calcification considered as severe. Older age was the only significant predicting variable for VC, with low HDL-cholesterol and high alkaline phosphatase as marginal predictors.

An en bloc approach to CT perfusion for the evaluation of limb ischemia

We examine volumetric CT perfusion in soft tissues of the entire foot with an en bloc technique to provide a meaningful measure of differentiation between mild and major vascular impairment. With Institutional Review Board approval, 22 healthy male subjects between the ages of 21 and 50 (mean 37) were enrolled. Volumetric computed tomography using an en bloc technique was conducted on 14 subjects for validation while unilateral vascular obstruction was simulated in the calves of the remaining 8 subjects. Perfusion estimates were made using in-house software and differences in perfusion estimates between feet were evaluated with Student's t-test at 95% confidence. Subjects with simulated major vascular obstruction (calf blood pressure cuff inflated to 200 mmHg) showed significantly higher ratios of perfusion estimates between the unobstructed and obstructed foot compared to subjects with simulated mild vascular obstruction (cuff inflated to 120 mmHg), mean 4.6, SD 2.6 vs. mean 1.3, SD 0.2; P = 0.05. CT perfusion using an en bloc technique shows promise for the future evaluation of patients with critical limb ischemia and particularly for re-characterization post medical, surgical or endovascular intervention.

Association of foot ulcer with tibial artery calcification is independent of peripheral occlusive disease in type 2 diabetes

AIMS

To determine the relationship between foot ulcers, arterial calcification, and peripheral occlusive disease in patients with type 2 diabetes.

METHODS

We performed a cross-sectional study on 162 patients with type 2 diabetes who underwent assessment of tibial artery calcification (TAC) by non-contrasted CT scan. Peripheral artery occlusive disease was assessed by angiography. Foot status including the presence or absence of ulcers was documented at presentation. A multivariable logistic regression model was used to evaluate the association between foot ulcers, arterial calcification, and the extent of peripheral atherosclerotic occlusive disease.

RESULTS

Patients with foot ulcers (N=31) were more likely to be older and have a history of tobacco use. They were also more likely to have higher TAC scores (median [IQR]: 4324.6 [609.9, 11163.6] vs. 9.4 [0.0, 343.9], P<0.001) and more advanced peripheral artery occlusive disease (occlusion index 5.5 [4.8, 6.4] vs. 2.2 [1.0, 3.6], P<0.001). Foot ulcer was strongly associated with elevated TAC scores in a multivariable regression model (odds ratio [95% CI]=2.76 [1.61, 4.75], P=0.0002).

CONCLUSIONS

There is a strong association between arterial calcification and diabetic foot ulcers that persists after adjusting for the extent of atherosclerosis in patients with type 2 diabetes.

Vascular calcification on plain radiographs is associated with carotid intima media thickness, malnutrition and cardiovascular events in dialysis patients: a prospective observational study

Background

Vascular calcification (VC) and carotid intima media thickness (CIMT) are strongly associated with cardiovascular (CV) disease. We hypothesized that significant VC on plain radiographs is associated with CIMT and CV events in dialysis patients. In addition, we evaluated risk factors for VC progression on plain radiographs in dialysis patients.

Methods

In this 2-year observational, prospective study, 67 dialysis patients were included. We checked plain radiographs at baseline and after 2 years. Laboratory tests and malnutrition score were obtained at baseline, after 12 months, and after 24 months.

Results

The mean age of patients was 56.3 ± 10.3 years and duration of dialysis was 41.3 ± 34.5 months. The prevalence of significant VC was 61.2% and the prevalence of carotid artery atheromatous plaques was 55.6%. Mean CIMT, malnutrition scores, CRP level and prevalence of carotid atheromatous plaques were significantly higher in patients with significant VC. Serum albumin and total iron binding capacity were significantly lower in patients with significant VC compared to patients without significant VC. During a mean observational period of 22 months, patients without significant VC showed lower CV events by the Kaplan-Meyer method (p = 0.010). Progression of VC was found in 35.7% among 56 patients followed up. Hemoglobin after 24 months was an independent factor for progression of VC (Exp(B) = 0.344, 95% Confidence Interval = 0.13 – 0.96, p = 0.034).

Conclusions

Significant VC on plain radiograph was associated with CIMT, malnutrition, inflammation, and CV events in dialysis patients. Conditions which increase hemoglobin level may retard progression of VC in dialysis patients.

Subclinical atherosclerotic changes related to chronic kidney disease in asymptomatic black and white young adults: the Bogalusa heart study

PURPOSE

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) remains asymptomatic until its late stage, and also significantly increases the risk of cardiovascular (CV) disease morbidity and mortality. However, information in scant on the prevalence of CKD, and its association with subclinical atherosclerosis as depicted by carotid intima media thickness (IMT) in younger adults.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 1193 participants (43% males, 30% blacks) aged 23 to 43 years, residing in the semi-rural biracial (black-white) community of Bogalusa, Louisiana. The measured variables include estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) to determine functional renal changes and urine album creatinine ratio to diagnose albuminuria, along with CV risk factor variables, and both segmental and composite carotid IMT.

RESULTS

Ninety-nine (8.5%) subjects had CKD, with blacks showing higher prevalence than whites (p = .01). Subjects with albuminuria had significantly greater internal carotid IMT (p = .03), common carotid IMT (p = .005), and composite carotid IMT (p = .04) than those without. In the multivariate logistic regression model, albuminuria was associated with black race (odds ratio [OR], 1.92; p = .005), female gender (OR, 2.24; p = .002), diabetes (OR, 6.26; p < .001), hypertension (OR, 2.36; p < .001), obesity (OR, 1.73; p = 0.02), and composite carotid IMT (OR, 1.83; p = .02), after adjusting for age. However, reduction in eGFR did not show significant independent association with carotid IMT.

CONCLUSION

Among asymptomatic young adults, subclinical atherosclerosis and structural renal damage depicted by albuminuria coexist, which has implications for early prevention and control.

Vascular calcifications and renal osteodystrophy in chronic hemodialysis patients: what is the relationship between them?

INTRODUCTION

Vascular calcifications (VCs) and renal osteodystrophy (ROD) are frequently seen together and represent the major causes of morbidity and mortality in hemodialysis (HD) patients. Some studies suggest a pathogenic link between them, but there is no consensus as yet regarding this issue. The main objective of our study was to establish whether there is any relation between VCs and ROD in our HD patients. We evaluated the prevalence of VCs and ROD and the relationship between VCs and some clinical and biochemical characteristics of HD patients.

METHODS

We examined radiological signs of VCs and ROD on hands and pelvis bone radiographs in 81 chronic HD patients, and we calculated a VC score on this basis.

RESULTS

We found a significant relation between radiological signs of ROD and those of VC (P = 0.019). The patients with ROD had a higher mean VC score (P = 0.02). By linear regression, the VC score correlated directly with serum calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), intact parathyroid hormone (iPTH) and CaxP product and inversely with serum albumin. The logistic regression model revealed that ROD, male gender and treatment with calcium salts were predictive of VCs development. There were no associations between VCs and age, HD vintage, diabetes, dialysate Ca concentration, vitamin D treatment, spKt/V, URR and C-reactive protein (CRP) levels.

CONCLUSION

There seems to be a pathogenetic link between bone and artery diseases in chronic HD patients. Both VCs and ROD have a high prevalence. ROD, male gender and treatment with calcium salts are risk factors for VCs.