Environmental impacts caused by cemeteries and crematoria, new funeral technologies, and preferences of the Northeastern and Southern Brazilian population as for the funeral process

Could Necroleachate Be the Cemetery's Sewage? A Panorama from Brazilian Legislation

Cemeteries can be compared to landfills, as the leachate produced in these areas, also known as necroleachate, can be environmentally transported, polluting groundwater, surface water, and soil. In Brazil, to ensure no negative environmental impacts and public health risks, cemetery management is the responsibility of states and municipalities. In this context, this article aims to discuss Brazilian sanitary-environmental legislation concerning cemetery waste management. Only half of all Brazilian states have established sanitary-environmental cemetery legislation, and only 19 municipalities have specific laws. These laws, however, are broad and contain many gaps. Necroleachate care and control require both sanitary and environmental assessments to avoid environmental vulnerability and contamination risks for populations inhabiting surrounding areas. In this regard, new water analysis parameters in environmentally vulnerable areas should be established to control the population's drinking water quality, such as the detection of C. perfringens. Furthermore, the construction of vertical cemeteries instead of horizontal ones and the adoption of cremation procedures should also be considered. This assessment comprises a novel research framework, as no studies on the impact of Brazilian laws on environmental necroleachate contamination are available to date.

The environmental pollution caused by cemeteries and cremations: A review

In recent years the funeral industry has drawn attention from the scientific community concerning the potential pollution of the environment and the urban environment. In this review, the pollution caused by the cemeteries and crematoria around the world was addressed. The traditional burial leads to the production of ions, in the form of organic and heavy metals, bacteria, fungi, and viruses, that spread along with the soil and underwater. The crematoria produce small particles, trace gases (SO_x, NO_x, CO), and toxic organic volatiles. The effluent generated by both methods can lead to several environmental problems and further threaten human health. The current solution for the cemeteries in the development of a system in which effluent generated by the traditional burials are collected and treated before realizing in the environment. In addition to that, the green burial should be an alternative, since the corpse does not go through the embalming process, thus eliminating the presence of any undesired chemicals, that are further leached onto the environment. The crematoria should be employed as it is, however, the gas treatment station should be employed, to ensure the minimization of the impact on the environment. Last, future researches regarding the treatment of the cemeteries leached still need to be explored as well as the optimization and further development of the crematoria gas treatment process.

Quantitative assessment and mitigation measures of air pollution from crematoria in NCT of Delhi

The modernization of crematoria and replacement of existing fuel requirements for better air quality is a key challenge in view of the associated religious beliefs in India where conventional open pyre funeral practices are followed. Unlike developed nations, the lack of appropriate site selection criteria, combustion efficient crematorium oven designs, and pollution control devices at these facilities necessitates formulation of appropriate policy measures to reduce emissions. The existing practices do not address such localized sources that affects the micro air pollution patterns owing to their marginal contribution in the total air pollution load of the city. The present study is thus an attempt to estimate emissions from 51 cremation grounds identified in NCT of Delhi. The study considers both particulate and gaseous pollutants which are released due to burning of fuels like wood, CNG, and cow dung. It is estimated that cremation activities contributed 393 tons/year of PM_2.5, 142 tons/year of NO_x, 29 tons/year of SO₂, and 2686 tons/year of CO in year 2019. The maximum load was emitted from Central district as only Nigambodh Ghat crematoria receives on an average 60 bodies per day. Furthermore, air quality impact zone around crematoria has been demarcated using dispersion modelling considering crematorium with minimum and maximum number of bodies burnt in a day. The study also suggests control measures for reduction of pollution from cremation activities and delineates a buffer zone that could aid policymakers in establishing a site selection criterion to prevent the immediate population from likely exposure.

Determination of Empirical Environmental Indices for the Location of Cemeteries—An Innovative Proposal for Worldwide Use

Cemeteries are a source of environmental contamination, as they hold hundreds of human corpses in different stages of decomposition. Therefore, the current research developed a new tool, which is easily applied, to determine the potential environmental contamination generated by current cemeteries within their ecosystems. The linear equations developed, with a number of variables between 10 and 3, allow for obtaining empirical indices to evaluate the suitability of a site, regardless of the geographical area in which it is located, through a variety of sources. In order to obtain the equations and, therefore, the indices, a hierarchy was performed using the Saaty matrix. With such a matrix, different ranges of affectation were established for each variable and relative values were assigned that cover all probabilities quantitatively, from the least probable to the most likely. With the linear equations, three verification runs were conducted, obtaining satisfactory results compared with the location map of cemeteries obtained in previous studies. These equations will constitute a tool of fundamental use for local governments, which will allow for the evaluation of existing cemeteries and use of the methodology described in preliminary analysis, to save resources and have a starting point for an efficient land use plan.

Proposal of an Initial Environmental Management and Land Use for Critical Cemeteries in Central Ecuador

Cemeteries are sites for the final disposal of human bodies that constitute a source of contamination of soil and water as a result of the cadaveric decomposition generated. The current research performed an initial study on the contamination of soil and water due to the influence of cemeteries and verified compliance with the legislation regulating land use and occupation of Central Ecuador (PUGS) with the aim of proposing an environmental and territorial solution to the problems generated by the mismanagement of cemeteries, through the physicochemical analysis of soil and water and studies of land use compatibility. The results indicate the tendency of contamination caused by the studied cemeteries, since the samples taken in both the rainy and dry season for the measurement of parameters BOD5, COD, DO, pH and electrical conductivity fail to meet the established requirements of the Ecuadorian and international environmental regulations. In addition, land use conflicts were encountered in the cemetery grounds. It is concluded that the existing cemeteries should be subjected to more detailed environmental analysis and subsequently should be treated as security landfills in the closure and post-closure stage. Also, it has been concluded that the cemeteries should not be located in urban or peri-urban areas.

Autopsy, thanatopraxy, cemeteries and crematoria as hotspots of toxic organic contaminants in the funeral industry continuum

The occurrence and health risks of toxic organic contaminants (TOCs) in the funeral industry are relatively under-studied compared to other industries. An increasing body of literature reports TOCs including emerging contaminants in the funeral industry, but comprehensive reviews of the evidence are still lacking. Hence, evidence was analysed to address the proposition that, the funeral industry constitutes several hotspot reservoirs of a wide spectrum of TOCs posing ecological and human health risks. TOCs detected include embalming products, persistent organic pollutants, synthetic pesticides, pharmaceuticals, personal care products and illicit drugs. Human cadavers, solid wastes, wastewaters and air-borne particulates from autopsy, thanatopraxy care facilities (mortuaries, funeral homes), cemeteries and crematoria are hotspots of TOCs. Ingestion of contaminated water, and aquatic and marine foods constitutes non-occupational human exposure, while occupational exposure occurs via inhalation and dermal intake. Risk factors promoting exposure to TOCs include unhygienic burial practices, poor solid waste and wastewater disposal, and weak and poorly enforced regulations. The generic health risks of TOCs are quite diverse, and include; (1) genotoxicity, endocrine disruption, teratogenicity and neurodevelopmental disorders, (2) development of antimicrobial resistance, (3) info-disruption via biomimicry, and (4) disruption of ecosystem functions and trophic interactions. Barring formaldehyde and inferential evidence, the epidemiological studies linking TOCs in the funeral industry to specific health outcomes are scarce. The reasons for the lack of evidence, and limitations of current health risk assessment protocols are discussed. A comprehensive framework for hazard identification, risk assessment and mitigation (HIRAM) in the funeral industry is proposed. The HIRAM includes regulatory, surveillance and control systems such as prevention and removal of TOCs. Future directions on the ecotoxicology of mixtures, behaviour, and health risks of TOCs are highlighted. The opportunities presented by emerging tools, including isotopic labelling, genomics, big data analytics (e.g., machine learning), and in silico techniques in toxicokinetic modelling are highlighted.

Toxic atmospheric pollutants from crematoria ovens: characterization, emission factors, and modeling

Human remains and corpses' cremation is an increasing practice worldwide alternative to burials, which have increased their cost and reduced spaces in cemeteries. Alike to other combustion processes, cremation produces pollutant emissions that contribute to worsen air quality in modern cities. A 6-month sampling campaign was performed in order to characterize emissions from corpse cremation in three different crematorium ovens and develop emission factors which were used to determine the population exposure to those pollutants during cremation activities applying a dispersion model. The main difference among crematoria was the inclusion or non-inclusion of controlled air supply devices. Using isokinetic samplings in the chimneys crematoria, emissions were measured and characterized with different chemical analyses. No significant differences were found in arsenic and metal concentrations among different crematories, although carbon monoxide, particles, elemental carbon, organic carbon, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in facilities without controlled air supply were up to seven times higher than those with controlled air supply. Nevertheless, these pollutants exceeded standards in all crematoria. Except for elemental and organic carbon concentration that correlated with corpse weight, other recorded cadaver characteristics bear no relation with pollutant emissions. Emission factors among different ovens did not present significant differences; then, they were used for dispersion modeling of particles and mercury emissions over Mexico City when 35 crematoria operate simultaneously through an hour showing that PM_2.5 and Hg increase 0.01-1 μg m^-3 and 0.01-0.1 ng m^-3, respectively, in that scenario.