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Boogaerts T, Van Wichelen N, Quireyns M, Burgard D, Bijlsma L, Delputte P, Gys C, Covaci A, van Nuijs ALN. Current state and future perspectives on de facto population markers for normalization in wastewater-based epidemiology: A systematic literature review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 935:173223. [PMID: 38761943 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/20/2024]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) and wastewater surveillance have become a valuable complementary data source to collect information on community-wide exposure through the measurement of human biomarkers in influent wastewater (IWW). In WBE, normalization of data with the de facto population that corresponds to a wastewater sample is crucial for a correct interpretation of spatio-temporal trends in exposure and consumption patterns. However, knowledge gaps remain in identifying and validating suitable de facto population biomarkers (PBs) for refinement of WBE back-estimations. WBE studies that apply de facto PBs (including hydrochemical parameters, utility consumption data sources, endo- and exogenous chemicals, biological biomarkers and signalling records) for relative trend analysis and absolute population size estimation were systematically reviewed from three databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SCOPUS) according to the PRISMA guidelines. We included in this review 81 publications that accounted for daily variations in population sizes by applying de facto population normalization. To date, a wide range of PBs have been proposed for de facto population normalization, complicating the comparability of normalized measurements across WBE studies. Additionally, the validation of potential PBs is complicated by the absence of an ideal external validator, magnifying the overall uncertainty for population normalization in WBE. Therefore, this review proposes a conceptual tier-based cross-validation approach for identifying and validating de facto PBs to guide their integration for i) relative trend analysis, and ii) absolute population size estimation. Furthermore, this review also provides a detailed evaluation of the uncertainty observed when comparing different de jure and de facto population estimation approaches. This study shows that their percentual differences can range up to ±200 %, with some exceptions showing even larger variations. This review underscores the need for collaboration among WBE researchers to further streamline the application of de facto population normalization and to evaluate the robustness of different PBs in different socio-demographic communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Boogaerts
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium; Exposome Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Natan Van Wichelen
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium; Exposome Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Maarten Quireyns
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium; Exposome Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Dan Burgard
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA, USA
| | - Lubertus Bijlsma
- Environmental and Public Health Analytical Chemistry, Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Castellón, Spain
| | - Peter Delputte
- Laboratory for Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium; Infla-Med Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Celine Gys
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium; Exposome Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium; Exposome Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Alexander L N van Nuijs
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium; Exposome Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Antwerp, Belgium
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Kim DH, Park GY, Kim D, Suh HS, Oh JE. Nationwide assessment of illicit drug consumption patterns in South Korea using wastewater-based epidemiology during the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2022). JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 476:135090. [PMID: 39024765 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 06/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
Illicit drugs have become a crucial global social issue, with South Korea experiencing a continuous increase in the number of offenders and drug smuggling. This study employed wastewater-based epidemiology to investigate consumption patterns of 8 illicit drugs and their 7 metabolites during the COVID-19 pandemic (2020-2022) in South Korea. Ten compouds were detected in the wastewater influent. Methamphetamine (METH) was prevalent in samples, followed by amphetamine and ecstasy (MDMA). Interestingly, MDMA and ketamine (KET), which were not detected in previous Korean studies conducted before COVID-19 pandemic, were detected in this study. METH exhibited the highest consumption rates, decreasing from 16.6 to 12.4 mg/day/1000 people between 2020 and 2022, while MDMA increased over the three years (mean: 1.16, 1.24, and 1.62 mg/day/1000 people in 2020, 2021, and 2022, respectively) (p < 0.05). Significant correlations were identified between regional income levels and the consumption rates of METH (p < 0.01), MDMA (p < 0.01), and KET (p < 0.05). Furthermore, METH and MDMA consumption rates in cities were positively correlated with the number of drug offenders arrested and local clubs in those cities. The findings of this study provide valuable insights into shaping regulatory policies related to illicit drugs and future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Da-Hye Kim
- Institute for Environment and Energy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Ga-Young Park
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Donghyun Kim
- Department of Urban Planning and Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Sun Suh
- College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeong-Eun Oh
- Institute for Environment and Energy, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea.
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Ting TT, Chen PC, Chang YC, Chiang PJ, Li HC, Chen SH, Chen PC, Chu HT, Chuang PY, Liu YH, Chen PS. Wastewater-based epidemiology to monitor 68 NPS/conventional drug use in Taipei metropolitan area in Taiwan during and after COVID-19 pandemic. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 476:135020. [PMID: 38959832 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/22/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
Amidst far-reaching COVID-19 effects and social constraints, this study leveraged wastewater-based epidemiology to track 38 conventional drugs and 30 new psychoactive substances (NPS) in northern Taiwan. Analyzing daily samples from four Taipei wastewater plants between September 2021 and January 2024-encompassing club reopenings, holidays, Lunar New Year, an outbreak, and regular periods-thirty-one drugs were detected, including 5 NPS. Tramadol, zolpidem tartrate, CMA, and MDPV were newly detected in Taiwanese sewage with frequency of 1.4 %- 89.0 %. Conventional drug use typically increased post-pandemic, aside from benzodiazepines and methadone. Methamphetamine showed 100 % frequency, indicating ongoing daily consumption despite COVID-19 measures. Methamphetamine and morphine's consumption dipped then rose around club reopening, hinting at limited access. The consumption trend of methadone appeared to compensate for the use of morphine. Ketamine and NPS demonstrated similar patterns throughout the entire period. NPS as party drugs seemed influenced by an unstable supply chain and complexities in implementation. Benzodiazepines, commonly abused alongside synthetic cathinones in Taiwan exhibited an opposing trend to NPS while aligned with acetaminophen, suggesting elevated stress and anxiety levels during the pandemic. No significant differences were observed in drug consumption between weekdays and weekends, potentially indicating that COVID-19 measures blurred the traditional distinctions between these timeframes. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATION: New psychoactive substances refer to chemically modified variants of controlled drugs designed to mimic the effects of the original drugs while evading modern detection methods, categorizing them as hazardous materials. The study presents a sewage monitoring project conducted from 2021 to 2024, collecting samples from four WWTPs to analyze NPS and conventional drug trends during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings uncovered connections between drug consumption patterns and pandemic-related policies. In light of the persistent drug abuse and their environmental presence, the results bear critical importance for both environmental and public health. We provide a thorough assessment of these relationships and prioritize areas for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Te-Tien Ting
- Department of Data Science, School of Big Data Management, Soochow University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Pin-Chuan Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Chi Chang
- Graduate Institute of Toxicology, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Pin-Ju Chiang
- Graduate Institute of Toxicology, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsu-Cheng Li
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Hsun Chen
- Graduate Institute of Toxicology, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Chieh Chen
- Graduate Institute of Toxicology, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hai-Tien Chu
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ping-Yu Chuang
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Hsin Liu
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Pai-Shan Chen
- Graduate Institute of Toxicology, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Ceolotto N, Jagadeesan K, Xu L, Standerwick R, Robertson M, Barden R, Barnett J, Kasprzyk-Hordern B. Assessment of restriction measures implemented during COVID pandemics on community lifestyle choices via wastewater-based epidemiology. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 471:134264. [PMID: 38640675 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 pandemic affected lifestyle habits, and the mental health and wellbeing of people around the world. In this manuscript, two towns (Paulton and Radstock) and two cities (Bath and Bristol) in Southwest England (> 1 million people) were monitored for two years using Wastewater-Based Epidemiology to assess impacts of COVID (including management measures such as lockdowns and movement restrictions) on community lifestyle choices: illicit drugs, legal stimulants, abused pharmaceuticals and pain pharma usage. Results were triangulated with key dates captured during the pandemic (national lockdowns, restrictions and social distancing measures, etc.). This highlighted a reduction in cocaine intake (as benzoylecgonine) (community average: -36 %) during the first lockdown and an increase in illicit drugs usage after the 3rd national lockdown (community averages for amphetamine: +8 %, cocaine/benzoylecgonine: +39 %, ketamine:+70 %) when restrictions were removed, and social interaction and recreational activities increased. There was a reduction in the intake of caffeine (as 1,7-dimethylxanthine) (community average:-39 %) after 3rd national lockdown coinciding with pubs reopening while nicotine intake (via cotinine) remained stable indicating lack of impact of COVID on smoking habits. Pain pharma often used in pain management resulting from injuries linked with sport activities (naproxen and diclofenac) showed decrease in usage due to lockdown restrictions in physical exercise and access to gyms/sport facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Ceolotto
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; Institute for Sustainability, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | | | - Like Xu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Richard Standerwick
- Wessex Water, Bath BA2 7WW, UK; Environment Agency, Horizon House, Deanery Road, Bristol, UK
| | | | | | - Julie Barnett
- Department of Psychology, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Barbara Kasprzyk-Hordern
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; Institute for Sustainability, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
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Zhu R, Cao S, Su H, Ming D, Tang Y, Chen Z. Efficient magnetic solid-phase extraction, UPLC-MS/MS detection, and consumption assessment of five trace psychoactive substances. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024:10.1007/s11356-024-33284-z. [PMID: 38635094 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-33284-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has become an objective and updated surveillance strategy for monitoring and estimating consumption trends of psychoactive substances (PSs) in the population. Firstly, magnetic shrimp shell biochar-based adsorbent (DZMBC) was synthesized and employed for extraction trace PSs from municipal wastewater. Proper pyrolysis temperature and increased KOH activator content favored the pore structure and surface area, thus facilitating extraction. DZMBC delivered exceptional extraction performance such as pH stability, anti-interference property, fast magnetic separation ability, reusability, and reproducibility. Then, a method based on magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) followed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) was developed, validated, and utilized for the quantitative determination of five PSs in real wastewater samples. Methodological validation results indicated a favorable linearity, low method limits of detection (1.00-4.75 ng/L), and good precisions (intra-day and inter-day relative standard deviations < 4.8%). Finally, an objective snapshot of Chongqing drug use and consumption pattern was obtained. Methamphetamine (MAMP) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) were the prevalent illegal drugs in local. Both concentrations and per capita consumption of MDMA displayed a change (P < 0.05) between July and September, while no statistical differences were observed for each week.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Zhu
- College of Pharmacy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
| | - Shurui Cao
- Forensic Identification Center, Southwest University of Political Science and Law, Chongqing, 401120, China.
- Criminal Investigation Law School, Southwest University of Political Science and Law, Chongqing, 401120, China.
| | - Hongtao Su
- Forensic Identification Center, Southwest University of Political Science and Law, Chongqing, 401120, China
| | - Dewang Ming
- The Inspection Technical Center of Chongqing Customs, Chongqing, 400020, China
| | - Yao Tang
- Forensic Identification Center, Southwest University of Political Science and Law, Chongqing, 401120, China
| | - Zhiqiong Chen
- College of Pharmacy, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, 400016, China
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Lawrence TI, Sims N, Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Jonnalagadda SB, Martincigh BS. Wastewater profiling of illicit drugs, an estimation of community consumption: A case study of eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality, South Africa. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 335:122270. [PMID: 37516292 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
Estimation of community-wide consumption of illicit drugs through wastewater analysis is a new concept in Africa although widely applied in developed nations as wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). It is an important tool that can be used in understanding supply and demand patterns of illicit drug use on a local, national, and international scale. Information on illicit drug use is currently limited in Africa, because of a lack of monitoring structures by governments and financial constraints. This study hopes to bridge that gap by contributing to Africa's baseline information on illicit drug use. This study provides the first application of wastewater analysis to quantitatively evaluate daily illicit drug use in the eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality of KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa by quantifying the major urinary excreted metabolites, called drug target residues (DTRs), in raw wastewater from four major wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) sampled for a week. The results showed that cocaine was the dominant illicit drug consumed in the catchment followed by amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, with a per capita use of 360-3000 mg day-1 1000 inh-1, 47-800 mg day-1 1000 inh-1, 19-120 mg day -1 1000 inh-1, not detected (ND) to 4.9 mg day-1 1000 inh-1, and ND to 410 g day-1 1000 inh-1 respectively. The weekly usage patterns between the four WWTPs differed probably due to the lifestyle of the populace serving the different WWTPs. These results provide useful data on illicit drug use in eThekwini that can be utilised by public health agencies to implement suitable response strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tolulope I Lawrence
- School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Private Bag X54001, Durban, 4000, South Africa.
| | - Natalie Sims
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath, BA2 7AY, United Kingdom
| | | | - Sreekantha B Jonnalagadda
- School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Private Bag X54001, Durban, 4000, South Africa
| | - Bice S Martincigh
- School of Chemistry and Physics, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Private Bag X54001, Durban, 4000, South Africa.
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Campo J, Vitale D, Sadutto D, Vera-Herrera L, Picó Y. Estimation of legal and illegal drugs consumption in Valencia City (Spain): 10 years of monitoring. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 240:120082. [PMID: 37224671 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach provides objective, quantitative, near real-time profiles of illicit drug consumption by monitoring the concentration of unchanged parent drugs or their metabolites entering the municipal sewage system. Valencia is the third most populous city in Spain (an important country for the use and transit of several of these drugs). Estimations of consumption over long periods of time will help get better understanding of spatial and temporal trends in the use of licit and illicit drugs. Accordingly, applying the "best practice" protocol, 16 drugs of abuse and metabolites were monitored in this study, and 8 were daily measured during one-two weeks between 2011 and 2020 at the inlet of three wastewater treatment plants of Valencia City. Analysis of the selected compounds was performed by liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry, and the concentrations obtained were used to back-calculate the consumption data. Cannabis, tobacco, and cocaine were the most consumed drugs whereas opioids were less used. Cannabis and cocaine consumption are on average 2.7-23.4 and 1.1-2.3 g/day/1000inh, respectively, and their use tended to increase since 2018. Weekly profiles were characterized by higher consumption of cocaine, ecstasy, and heroin during weekends compared to weekdays. Similarly, during "Las Fallas" (main local festivity), increased use of cocaine and amphetamine-type stimulants, mainly MDMA, was measured. WBE proved to be an objective and useful methodology to get more insight on temporal drugs of abuse consumption, and the changes derived from local festivities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Campo
- Environmental and Food Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV). Desertification Research Centre - CIDE (Spanish National Research Council, University of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana). Carretera CV-315 km 10.7 (Campus IVIA). 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spain.
| | - Dyana Vitale
- Environmental and Food Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV). Desertification Research Centre - CIDE (Spanish National Research Council, University of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana). Carretera CV-315 km 10.7 (Campus IVIA). 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| | - Daniele Sadutto
- Environmental and Food Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV). Desertification Research Centre - CIDE (Spanish National Research Council, University of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana). Carretera CV-315 km 10.7 (Campus IVIA). 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| | - Lucia Vera-Herrera
- Environmental and Food Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV). Desertification Research Centre - CIDE (Spanish National Research Council, University of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana). Carretera CV-315 km 10.7 (Campus IVIA). 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spain
| | - Yolanda Picó
- Environmental and Food Safety Research Group (SAMA-UV). Desertification Research Centre - CIDE (Spanish National Research Council, University of Valencia, Generalitat Valenciana). Carretera CV-315 km 10.7 (Campus IVIA). 46113 Moncada, Valencia, Spain
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Gitter A, Oghuan J, Godbole AR, Chavarria CA, Monserrat C, Hu T, Wang Y, Maresso AW, Hanson BM, Mena KD, Wu F. Not a waste: Wastewater surveillance to enhance public health. FRONTIERS IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2023. [DOI: 10.3389/fceng.2022.1112876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Domestic wastewater, when collected and evaluated appropriately, can provide valuable health-related information for a community. As a relatively unbiased and non-invasive approach, wastewater surveillance may complement current practices towards mitigating risks and protecting population health. Spurred by the COVID-19 pandemic, wastewater programs are now widely implemented to monitor viral infection trends in sewersheds and inform public health decision-making. This review summarizes recent developments in wastewater-based epidemiology for detecting and monitoring communicable infectious diseases, dissemination of antimicrobial resistance, and illicit drug consumption. Wastewater surveillance, a quickly advancing Frontier in environmental science, is becoming a new tool to enhance public health, improve disease prevention, and respond to future epidemics and pandemics.
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Zhao J, Lu J, Zhao H, Yan Y, Dong H, Li W. Illicit drugs and their metabolites in urban wastewater: Analysis, occurrence and consumption in Xinjiang, China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 852:158457. [PMID: 36063955 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The use of illicit drugs has increased considerably across the world. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) of illicit drugs might help determine the types and quantity of illicit drugs consumed in a region. In this study, WBE was applied to analyze illicit drugs in five representative urban wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Xinjiang, China. The collected samples were pretreated under optimized solid-phase extraction conditions and then analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). The results revealed the presence of 9 of the 11 evaluated drugs; among them, the concentrations of these substances ranged as follows: METH (2.60-10.02 ng/L), MDMA (0.49-6.87 ng/L), MOR (4.53-44.75 ng/L), COD (2.24-8.30 ng/L), MTD (1.36-3.75 ng/L), COC (0.48 ng/L), THC (5.98-18.89 ng/L), BE (1.12-2.45 ng/L) and KET (1.50 ng/L). And an estimate of the per capita consumption revealed morphine (10.2 mg/d/1000inhabitants), cannabis (3.9 mg/d/1000inhabitants), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (3.9 mg/d/1000 inhabitants), and methamphetamine (2.2 mg/d/1000 inhabitants) as the main substances of abuse in Xinjiang, China. The results of this study might be taken as a reference for future studies on the continuous monitoring of such drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Zhao
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering/Key Laboratory of Environmental Monitoring and Pollutant Control of Xinjiang Bingtuan, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China
| | - Jianjiang Lu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering/Key Laboratory of Environmental Monitoring and Pollutant Control of Xinjiang Bingtuan, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China.
| | - Haijun Zhao
- The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China
| | - Yujun Yan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering/Key Laboratory of Environmental Monitoring and Pollutant Control of Xinjiang Bingtuan, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China
| | - Hongyu Dong
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering/Key Laboratory of Environmental Monitoring and Pollutant Control of Xinjiang Bingtuan, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China
| | - Wen Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering/Key Laboratory of Environmental Monitoring and Pollutant Control of Xinjiang Bingtuan, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China
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Wang H, Xu B, Yang L, Huo T, Bai D, An Q, Li X. Consumption of common illicit drugs in twenty-one cities in southwest China through wastewater analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 851:158105. [PMID: 35987225 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2022] [Revised: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) was applied to estimate illicit drugs consumption at a provincial scale in southwest China. A large-scale wastewater sampling campaign was carried out from October to November in 2021 in 156 different wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Two 24-h composite influent wastewater samples were collected in each WWTP. Concentrations of 11 illicit drugs or their metabolites were determined using liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Benzoylecgonine, cocaine, 6-monoacetylmorphine, norketamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), and MDA were not detected in any of the wastewater samples. Methamphetamine and morphine were detected in >84% of samples, while ketamine was found in about 6% of the samples. The city-specific population-weighted consumption of methamphetamine and ketamine were in the range of 0.6-49.7 and N.D.-7.0 mg 1000 inh-1 day-1, respectively, with provincial population-weighted values of 22.6 and 2.4 mg 1000 inh-1 day-1 in southwest China. The city-specific load of morphine varied from 3.2 to 10.2 mg 1000 inh-1 day-1, with provincial population-weighted load of 6.7 mg 1000 inh-1 day-1. Taking into account therapeutic use of morphine and codeine, the provincial heroin consumption was estimated to be 10.3 mg 1000 inh-1 day-1, ranging from 1.7 to 18.5 mg 1000 inh-1 day-1 in 21 cities. Overall, the patterns of illicit drugs use were similar across southwest China, with high prevalence of methamphetamine and heroin, but relatively low use of ketamine. These findings could provide accurate drugs consumption information for timely identifying potential hotspots of illicit drugs use in southwest China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanbo Wang
- School of Environment and Resource, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Buyi Xu
- National Anti-Drug Laboratory Sichuan Regional Center, Chengdu, China; Sichuan Police College, Luzhou, China.
| | - Li Yang
- National Anti-Drug Laboratory Sichuan Regional Center, Chengdu, China
| | - Tingting Huo
- School of Environment and Resource, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Dengwen Bai
- National Anti-Drug Laboratory Sichuan Regional Center, Chengdu, China
| | - Qi An
- School of Environment and Resource, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
| | - Xiran Li
- School of Environment and Resource, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang, China
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11
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Ren H, Yuan S, Zheng J, Luo R, Qiang H, Duan W, Zhao Y, Xiang P. Direct injection ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the high-throughput determination of 11 illicit drugs and metabolites in wastewater. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1685:463587. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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12
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Chen X, Liu S, Jiang R, Luan T, Ouyang G. Rapid detection and speciation of illicit drugs via a thin-film microextraction approach for wastewater-based epidemiology study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 842:156888. [PMID: 35753476 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
High detection frequency of illicit drugs in water samples urges the development of rapid detection method for wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) study. Here, we first developed a fast, convenient, and cost-effective method by combining thin-film microextraction (TFME) with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for sensing illicit drugs in wastewater sample. A divinylbenzene particle-loaded membrane was prepared by dip coating on a copper mesh. The sampling conditions of three illicit drugs were optimized and the performance of the proposed method was evaluated. The limit of detection was 5.5 2.0, and 1.1 ng L-1 for methamphetamine (MAMP), ketamine (KET), and methaqualone (MEQA), respectively, with acceptable precision (< 6.1 % for membrane to membrane reproducibility) and recovery from influent water (95 % - 111 %). Then, the proposed method was applied to study the occurrence and distribution of the target compounds in a wastewater treatment plant. The presence of methamphetamine, ketamine, and methaqualone was confirmed and their concentrations in the influent sample were 57 ± 8, 40 ± 4, and 75 ± 2 ng L-1, respectively. The speciation of the target compounds in different ponds was also investigated. Results showed that the content of organic matter and the pH of the sample significantly affected the binding state of the compounds. This work provides an efficient and accurate analytical protocol for WBE investigation of illicit drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinlv Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China
| | - Shuqin Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Measurement and Emergency Test Technology, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Ambient Mass Spectrometry, Institute of Analysis, Guangdong Academy of Sciences (China National Analytical Center, Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Ruifen Jiang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Health, School of Environment, Jinan University, Guangzhou 511443, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Measurement and Emergency Test Technology, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Ambient Mass Spectrometry, Institute of Analysis, Guangdong Academy of Sciences (China National Analytical Center, Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510070, China.
| | - Tiangang Luan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Psychoactive Substances Monitoring and safety, Institute of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, 100 Waihuanxi Road, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Gangfeng Ouyang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Measurement and Emergency Test Technology, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Ambient Mass Spectrometry, Institute of Analysis, Guangdong Academy of Sciences (China National Analytical Center, Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510070, China; KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China; Chemistry College, Center of Advanced Analysis and Gene Sequencing, Zhengzhou University, Kexue Avenue 100, Zhengzhou 450001, China
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13
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Liu A, Lin W, Ming R, Guan W, Wang X, Hu N, Ren Y. Stability of 28 typical prescription drugs in sewer systems and interaction with the biofilm bacterial community. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 436:129142. [PMID: 35594665 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2021] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Identifying the attenuation characteristics of drugs in sewage and sewers is one of the important factors to improve the accuracy of wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) application. In this study, 28 drugs including antidepressants, cardiovascular drugs, antihistamines, anticonvulsants and some of their human metabolites were chosen as the targets to study the hydrolysis, adsorption, and biodegradation at different temperatures in sewage and sewers. The interaction between drugs degradation and community structure of biofilm was also investigated. In the simulated sewers, the removal percentages of 12 parent or drug metabolites are 0-20%, such as demethylvenlafaxine, fluvoxamine, etc., which are highly stable chemicals and suitable to be chosen as biomarkers for WBE back-calculation under appropriate circumstances. Fourteen drugs including venlafaxine and citalopram have removal percentages of 20-60%. While paroxetine and sertraline, with removal percentage of 100%, are the most unstable and cannot be used as biomarkers. Among the 28 drugs, there are 25 drugs that have a higher loss rate in the aerobic sewer than that in the anaerobic sewer in this study. During drug exposure in anaerobic biofilms, species abundance first decreased and then increased. Species abundance and diversity in aerobic biofilm generally showed a decreasing trend. In addition, Proteobacteria and Spirochaetota were the dominant phyla in both sewers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anchen Liu
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Wenting Lin
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Ruiliang Ming
- Guangzhou CAS Test Technical Services Co., Ltd, Guangzhou 510650, PR China
| | - Wenqi Guan
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Xinying Wang
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Ningyi Hu
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Yuan Ren
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; The Key Lab of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Eco-Remediation of Guangdong Regular Higher Education Institutions, Guangzhou 510006, PR China.
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14
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Duan L, Zhang Y, Wang B, Yu G, Gao J, Cagnetta G, Huang C, Zhai N. Wastewater surveillance for 168 pharmaceuticals and metabolites in a WWTP: Occurrence, temporal variations and feasibility of metabolic biomarkers for intake estimation. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 216:118321. [PMID: 35339048 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is amply used for mining information about public health such as the estimation of consumption/intake of certain substances. Yet, proper biomarker selection is critical to obtain reliable data. This study measured a broad range of pharmaceuticals and metabolites in a wastewater treatment plant in Beijing, China, and evaluated their suitability as consumption estimation biomarkers. Wastewater sampling was conducted during a normal week and two holiday weeks to assess the impact of the holiday on population normalized daily mass loads (PNDLs). One hundred and forty-nine out of 168 pharmaceuticals were detected, with 94 analytes being quantified in all sampling events. Moreover, digestive drug cimetidine (<MDL∼672 ng L - 1) and anabolic steroid trenbolone (<MDL∼53 ng L - 1) were only detected during holiday weeks. PNDLs of some substances showed disparities between weekdays and weekends during the normal week. This study proposed a framework to diagnose whether a parent compound or its metabolite is suitable for intake/prevalence rate estimation. Our results support that not all the metabolites can be employed as biomarkers for back-calculation when the in-sewer stability of these compounds is unclear, such as metoprolol acid and O-desmethyl venlafaxine. Public healthcare data for drug utilization were applied to validate the prevalence of average substance use in this study. As a popular anti-epileptic ranging from hundreds to thousands of ng L - 1 in this study, the parent compound levetiracetam is more appropriate to be used in WBE under our framework, referring to public healthcare data. This WBE study illustrates the changes in pharmaceutical use and population lifestyle that stem from holidays and commutes. In addition, it can provide data support for the selection of more suitable biomarkers in WBE studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Duan
- Beijing Laboratory of Environmental Frontier Technology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Emerging Organic Contaminants Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Suzhou), Tsinghua, Suzhou 215163, China
| | - Yizhe Zhang
- Beijing Laboratory of Environmental Frontier Technology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Emerging Organic Contaminants Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Suzhou), Tsinghua, Suzhou 215163, China
| | - Bin Wang
- Beijing Laboratory of Environmental Frontier Technology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Emerging Organic Contaminants Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Suzhou), Tsinghua, Suzhou 215163, China.
| | - Gang Yu
- Beijing Laboratory of Environmental Frontier Technology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Emerging Organic Contaminants Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Suzhou), Tsinghua, Suzhou 215163, China
| | - Jianfa Gao
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, 1066 Xueyuan Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Giovanni Cagnetta
- Beijing Laboratory of Environmental Frontier Technology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Emerging Organic Contaminants Control, School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Cunrui Huang
- Vanke School of Public Health, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Nannan Zhai
- Shanghai Sciex Analytical Instrument Trading Co., Ltd Beijing Branch Company, Beijing 100015, China
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15
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Hue TTT, Zheng Q, Anh NTK, Binh VN, Trung NQ, Trang HT, Chinh PQ, Minh LQ, Thai PK. Prevalence of illicit drug consumption in a population of Hanoi: an estimation using wastewater-based epidemiology. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 815:152724. [PMID: 34995598 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Illicit drug use is a serious issue in Vietnam, but information about their prevalence is scarce, mainly based on seizure data. Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is an alternative tool for obtaining such information, especially when stigma related to drug use can hinder survey approaches. The study aimed to apply WBE to assess the prevalence of use of a range of illicit drugs in an urban population of Vietnam. A total of 184 wastewater samples were collected at two different sites along a sewage canal, receiving sewage from over 400,000 people in Hanoi, Vietnam, in three different periods between 2018 and 2020. Illicit drugs and their metabolites were measured by direct injection using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The results were back-estimated, normalised to per capita daily consumption for assessement of consumption patterns and trends. Most drugs were detected in all the samples except cocaine, benzoylecgonine, amphetamine indicating a low prevalence of cocaine and amphetamine use. The estimated consumption level of methamphetamine was varied from 119.5 to 553.5 mg/d/1000 pp. The market of illicit drugs in Vietnam has changed from opiates to amphetamine-type simulants, and methamphetamine has replaced heroin as the No.1 drug, its use can be as much as 3 times more than heroin use. Moreover, we observed the considerable and potentially increasing level of ketamine consumption in Hanoi. No statistical difference was found in daily consumption per capita among days of the week for any drugs, both legal (codeine, methadone) and illegal (methamphetamine, MDMA, ketamine and heroin), suggesting the drugs were consumed mainly by regular users. This study provides important information related the illicit drug consumption in Vietnam, which will help to formulate appropriate drug control policies in this country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tran Thi Thanh Hue
- Department of Pharmacology, National Institute of Drug Quality Control, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Department of Analytical Chemistry and Toxicology, Hanoi University of Pharmacy, Viet Nam
| | - Qiuda Zheng
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, Queensland 4102, Australia
| | - Nguyen Thi Kieu Anh
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Toxicology, Hanoi University of Pharmacy, Viet Nam.
| | - Vu Ngan Binh
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Toxicology, Hanoi University of Pharmacy, Viet Nam
| | - Ngo Quang Trung
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Toxicology, Hanoi University of Pharmacy, Viet Nam
| | - Hoang Thu Trang
- Department of Analytical Chemistry and Toxicology, Hanoi University of Pharmacy, Viet Nam
| | - Pham Quoc Chinh
- Department of Toxins, National Institute of Forensic Medicine, Hanoi, Viet Nam
| | | | - Phong K Thai
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, Queensland 4102, Australia.
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16
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Ling J, Zhang W, Cheng Z, Ding Y. Recyclable Magnetic Fluorescence Sensor Based on Fe 3O 4 and Carbon Dots for Detection and Purification of Methcathinone in Sewage. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:3752-3761. [PMID: 35014257 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c20170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Sensitive, rapid, and low-cost detection of drug traces in sewage is very important for drug monitoring and control. In this study, a dual functional and recyclable magnetic fluorescent molecularly imprinted polymers (MFMIPs) sensor with high sensitivity for rapid detection and purification of methcathinone in sewage was developed. MFMIPs was prepared via molecular imprinting and conjugation with carbon dots as a fluorescent reporter on Fe3O4 (Fe3O4-MIPs@CDs). With strong recognition and adsorption toward methcathinone by the specific cavities on the surface of MFMIPs, the fluorescence of the sensor could dramatically be quenched once anchored with methcathinone. Under optimal conditions, the MFMIPs sensor presented high sensitivity with a linear range of 0.5-100 nM and a detection limit of 0.2 nM, which would be used to monitor drug prevalence and consumption within a certain region. This sensor was applied to the assay of methcathinone in sewage samples collected from Yuebeiyuan, Yanghu, and Xujiahu sewage pumping stations of Yuelu District. The calculated concentrations of methcathinone were 4.80, 15.33, and 8.59 nM in sewage samples, which were in good agreement with data tested by LC-MS/MS. For another function, MFMIPs exhibited purification toward methcathinone and the adsorption capacity was about 0.27 mg/g in a real sewage sample. Moreover, the sensor could be recycled and reused at least five times with the aid of an external magnetic field. Collectively, with good analytical performance and excellent recognition and selectivity to methcathinone, the proposed sensing system based on the magnetic core and molecularly imprinted polymers would open a door to establish highly sensitive and effective sensing systems for sewage analysis and purification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Ling
- Department of Forensic Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China
| | - Wenqi Zhang
- Department of Forensic Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China
| | - Zijia Cheng
- Department of Forensic Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China
| | - Yanjun Ding
- Department of Forensic Science, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan 410013, China
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17
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Huizer M, Ter Laak TL, de Voogt P, van Wezel AP. Wastewater-based epidemiology for illicit drugs: A critical review on global data. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 207:117789. [PMID: 34731667 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/16/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Illicit drug use is complex, hidden and often highly stigmatized behaviour, which brings a vast challenge for drug surveillance systems. Drug consumption can be estimated by measuring human excretion products in untreated wastewater, known as wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE). Over the last decade, the application of wastewater-based epidemiology to monitor illicit drug loads increased and WBE is currently applied on a global scale. Studies from over the globe are evaluated with regard to their sampling method, analytical accuracy and consumption calculation, aiming to further reduce relevant uncertainties in order to make reliable comparisons on a global level. Only a limited number is identified as high-quality studies, so further standardization of the WBE approach for illicit drugs is desired especially with regard to the sampling methodology. Only a fraction of the reviewed papers explicitly reports uncertainty ranges for their consumption data. Studies which had the highest reliability are recently published, indicating an improvement in reporting WBE data. Until now, WBE has not been used in large parts of Africa, nor in the Middle East and Russia. An overview of consumption data across the continents on commonly studied drugs (cocaine, MDMA, amphetamine and methamphetamine) is provided. Overall, high consumption rates are confirmed in the US, especially for cocaine and methamphetamine, while relatively low illicit drug consumption is reported in Asia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marit Huizer
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Thomas L Ter Laak
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; KWR, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | - Pim de Voogt
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands; KWR, Nieuwegein, the Netherlands
| | - Annemarie P van Wezel
- Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics (IBED), University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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18
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Wu J, Huang B, Yuan K, Wang Y, Chen B, Luan T. Occurrence, mass loads, and ecological risks of amphetamine-like substances in a rural area of South China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 797:149058. [PMID: 34303256 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence and levels of amphetamine like substances (ALSs) in various environments, as a group of illicit psychoactive substances, have attracted great attention due to their potential ecological risks. In this study, three ALSs (i.e., ephedrine (EPH), amphetamine (AMP) and methamphetamine (METH)) in the raw domestic wastewater (RDW) and surface river water (SRW) collected from the rural area in South China were analyzed. METH was identified as the prevalent and dominant ALS in the RDW, which was detected in approximately 99.0% of the samples with a mean concentration of 0.7 μg·L-1, followed by AMP and EPH. Consistent trend was also found in the SRW collected from the same region. METH concentrations in the SRW were significantly and positively correlated with those in the RDW (p < 0.05), indicating that the discharge of RDW could be the important source of METH in the nearby rivers. The mean mass load of METH in the study rural area was about 65.8 mg·day-1·1000 inhabitants-1. Source apportionment showed that the abuse consumption was the main source of METH at most of sampling towns in the investigated rural area, and the mean mass load of METH at these towns (24.5 mg·day-1·1000 inhabitants-1) might reflect the abuse level of METH in this region. The disposal and illegal synthesis of METH could be important point sources, which led to the elevated METH level in the RDW. Risk assessment demonstrated that ALSs posed a minimal or medium risk to aquatic organisms. Our results provided valuable insights into the mass loads, source characteristics and ecological risks of ALSs in the rural area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junhui Wu
- State Key Lab of Bioresource and Biocontrol, School of Life Science, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Bi Huang
- State Key Lab of Bioresource and Biocontrol, School of Life Science, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Ke Yuan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China
| | - Yuru Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Baowei Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, School of Marine Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China.
| | - Tiangang Luan
- State Key Lab of Bioresource and Biocontrol, School of Life Science, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China; Institute of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Psychoactive Substances Monitoring and Safety, Guangzhou 510230, China
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19
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Du P, Zhou Z, Wang Z, Xu Z, Zheng Q, Li X, He J, Li X, Cheng H, Thai PK. Analysing wastewater to estimate fentanyl and tramadol use in major Chinese cities. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 795:148838. [PMID: 34247094 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The misuse of fentanyl and more recently tramadol in the population has caused an opioid crisis in several countries and drawn much public attention worldwide. However, there is a gap of information on the potential misuse of fentanyl and tramadol in China. This study aims to fill this gap by analysing fentanyl and tramadol in wastewater of major cities across China to estimate their use. Wastewater samples were collected from 30 cities located across all seven geographic regions of China, from 2016 to 2019. Fentanyl was detected in only a few samples, suggesting a low prevalence of this potent opioid drug in China. Meanwhile, tramadol was found in most samples with concentrations ranging up to 186 ng/L. The per capita daily consumption of tramadol estimated from wastewater across China ranged from 6 mg/d/1000 in. to 213 mg/d/1000 inh. The consumption of tramadol seems to be similar among all the days of the week. Tramadol use is overall higher in Northeast China than in other regions, which is different from heroin, another popular opioid in China. Temporally, there is a significant decrease in tramadol use in major cities of China from 2016 to 2019. The results of our study suggested that tramadol use in China was predominantly from pharmaceutical prescription and not as prevalent as in other countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Du
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Urban Hydrological Cycle and Sponge City Technology, College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Zilei Zhou
- Hubei Academy of Environmental Sciences, Wuhan, Hubei 430072, China
| | - Zhenglu Wang
- College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210098, China
| | - Zeqiong Xu
- College of Geography and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua, Zhejiang 321004, China
| | - Qiuda Zheng
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4102, Australia
| | - Xinyue Li
- Development Research Center of the Ministry of Water Resources of P. R. China, Beijing 100036, China
| | - Jia He
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Urban Hydrological Cycle and Sponge City Technology, College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Xiqing Li
- Laboratory of Earth Surface Processes, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
| | - Hongguang Cheng
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Urban Hydrological Cycle and Sponge City Technology, College of Water Sciences, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China.
| | - Phong K Thai
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4102, Australia
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20
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Zheng Q, Ren Y, Wang Z, Liu J, Zhang Y, Lin W, Gao J, Thomas KV, Thai PK. Assessing patterns of illicit drug use in a Chinese city by analyzing daily wastewater samples over a one-year period. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 417:125999. [PMID: 34229374 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) has been used extensively around the globe to provide information on illicit drug consumption. In China, most WBE studies to date only include a limited number of samples per catchment, making it difficult to derive any temporal consumption patterns. This study addresses this knowledge gap by identifying the temporal consumption trends of nine drugs in a Chinese megacity using WBE over a one-year period. Daily influent samples (n = 279) were collected from a wastewater treatment plant serving ~500,000 residents. All target drugs showed similar levels of consumption throughout the week. These findings were different to previous WBE studies in developed countries, where amphetamine-type drugs have shown higher consumption on weekends than during the week. Such a difference could be due to the users' demographics and behaviors as reported in previous surveys and warrant more research to help formulate appropriate drug control policies in China. Our study also observed that declining methamphetamine and ketamine consumption between 2012 and 2018, while consumption of MDMA and methadone were stable over the same period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuda Zheng
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba 4102, Queensland, Australia
| | - Yuan Ren
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Higher Education Mega Center, Panyu District, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Zhe Wang
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba 4102, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jinhua Liu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shihezi University, Shihezi 832003, China
| | - Wenting Lin
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Higher Education Mega Center, Panyu District, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jianfa Gao
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, 1066 Xueyuan Avenue, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Kevin V Thomas
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba 4102, Queensland, Australia
| | - Phong K Thai
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Sciences (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba 4102, Queensland, Australia
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21
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Yan J, Lin W, Gao Z, Ren Y. Use of selected NSAIDs in Guangzhou and other cities in the world as identified by wastewater analysis. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 279:130529. [PMID: 33878693 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The mass load of pharmaceuticals in the municipal wastewater based on wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) is a good indication of population consumption in the catchment. After successful application of illicit drugs' estimation, this method holds the potential to measure the geographical and temporal consumption of prescription medicines. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of four non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), acetaminophen (ACM), diclofenac (DCF), ibuprofen (IBU) and naproxen (NPX), in two wastewater treatment plants in Guangzhou City, China and compared the spatial and temporal consumption variation of them. Over a period of 28 days' sampling, the detection frequency of ACM, DCF, IBU, and NPX in the influent of two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Guangzhou City were 91%, 66%, 100%, and 95%, and their concentrations were up to 128, 131, 372, and 324 ng/L, respectively. No significant inter-catchment difference was observed regarding the per capita mass load in the two WWTPs investigated. A literature review which covered 160 WWTPs in 18 countries was conducted to compare the population normalized mass load of four commonly used NSAIDs. ACM had the highest population normalized mass loads (29-17,430 mg/d/1000 inhabitants) and DCF had the lowest population normalized mass load (6.5-628 mg/d/1000 inhabitants) in the catchments located in 18 countries. The mass loads of selected NSAIDs in China were lower than those in European and North American. ACM and IBU consumptions were at least 2 times higher in winter than that in summer, in contrast, DCF and NPX consumptions had no significant seasonal variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingna Yan
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Higher Education Mega Center, Panyu District, Guangzhou, 510006, China; Guangdong Zhongzheng Environmental Science and Technology Service Co.,Ltd, 505, 5th Floor, Times-park Building, No.231 Gaotang Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou, 510630, China.
| | - Wenting Lin
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Higher Education Mega Center, Panyu District, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
| | - Zhihan Gao
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Higher Education Mega Center, Panyu District, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
| | - Yuan Ren
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Higher Education Mega Center, Panyu District, Guangzhou, 510006, China; The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters, Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510006, China; The Key Laboratory of Environmental Protection and Eco-Remediation of Guangdong Regular Higher Education Institutions, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
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Langa I, Gonçalves R, Tiritan ME, Ribeiro C. Wastewater analysis of psychoactive drugs: Non-enantioselective vs enantioselective methods for estimation of consumption. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 325:110873. [PMID: 34153554 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The consumption of licit and illicit psychoactive drugs (PAD) is ubiquitous in all communities and a serious public health problem. Measuring drug consumption is difficult but essential for health-care professionals, risk assessment and policymakers. Different sources of information have been used for a comprehensive analysis of drug consumption. Among them, Wastewater based epidemiology (WBE) emerged as an essential and complementary methodology for estimating licit and illicit drugs consumption. This methodology can be used for quantification of unchanged drugs or their human-specific metabolites in wastewater for estimation of consumption or screening of new PAD. Although some limitations are still being pointed out (e.g., estimation of the population size, use of suitable biomarkers or pharmacokinetics studies), the non-invasive and potential for monitoring real-time data on geographical and temporal trends in drug use have been showing its capacity as a routine and complementary tool. Chromatographic methods, both non-enantioselective and enantioselective are the analytical tools used for quantification of PAD in wastewaters and further estimation of consumption. Therefore, this manuscript aims to summarize and critically discuss the works used for wastewater analysis of PAD based on WBE using non-enantioselective and enantioselective methods for estimation of consumption. Non-enantioselective methods are among the most reported including for chiral PAD. Nevertheless, a trend has been seen towards the development of enantioselective methods as most PAD are chiral and determination of the enantiomeric fraction can provide additional information (e.g., distinction between consumption or direct disposal, or manufacture processes) and fulfill some WBE gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Langa
- CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116 Gandra PRD, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Gonçalves
- CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116 Gandra PRD, Portugal
| | - Maria Elizabeth Tiritan
- CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116 Gandra PRD, Portugal; Laboratório de Química Orgânica e Farmacêutica, Departamento de Ciências Químicas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental (CIIMAR/CIMAR), Universidade do Porto, Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4050-208 Matosinhos, Portugal.
| | - Cláudia Ribeiro
- CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116 Gandra PRD, Portugal; Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental (CIIMAR/CIMAR), Universidade do Porto, Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4050-208 Matosinhos, Portugal.
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Cong ZX, Shao XT, Liu SY, Pei W, Wang DG. Wastewater analysis reveals urban, suburban, and rural spatial patterns of illicit drug use in Dalian, China. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:25503-25513. [PMID: 33459987 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-12371-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Illicit drug use in rural and suburban areas of China has not been studied extensively, as most studies have focused on illicit drug use in urban areas. To compare the differences between urban, suburban, and rural drug use, we collected influent samples from 19 urban, 9 suburban, and 18 rural wastewater treatment plants in Dalian, respectively. A method using solid-phase extraction combined with derivatization for gas chromatography -mass spectrometry analysis was applied to detect biomarker concentrations. The concentrations of methamphetamine and morphine ranged from 3.12 to 605 ng/L and < 2.35 to 198 ng/L, respectively. Norketamine was found in only four samples (5.56 to 14.5 ng/L), while 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and benzoylecgonine were not detected in any samples. Methamphetamine use in rural areas (16.3 mg/day/1000 inhabitant (inh), prevalence: 0.06%) was significantly lower than those in urban (77.1 mg/day/1000 inh, prevalence: 0.23%) and suburban (234 mg/day/1000 inh, prevalence: 0.70%) areas. Heroin use in suburban areas (57.6 mg/day/1000 inh, prevalence: 0.10%) was significantly higher than that in urban (13.9 mg/day/1000 inh, prevalence: 0.02%) and rural (8.68 mg/day/1000 inh, prevalence: 0.02%) areas. The results indicate relatively low levels of illicit drug use in rural areas of Dalian, related to low incomes and outflow of the working-age population. Illicit drug use was most prevalent in suburban areas of Dalian, which may be influenced by large floating populations and few anti-drug efforts in suburban areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zi-Xiang Cong
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Xue-Ting Shao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Si-Yu Liu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Wei Pei
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - De-Gao Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China.
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Liu SY, Yu WJ, Wang YR, Shao XT, Wang DG. Tracing consumption patterns of stimulants, opioids, and ketamine in China by wastewater-based epidemiology. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:16754-16766. [PMID: 33394399 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-12035-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Illicit drug use has long been a key issue of international concern, and the true situation is unknown to the relevant authorities. To develop a profile of comprehensive consumption patterns of illicit drugs in China, data from 34 wastewater treatment plants in 25 cities were collected to analyze four classes of drugs, including amphetamine-type stimulants, opioids, ketamine, and cocaine. They were identified and quantified in samples using methods based on gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. According to the wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE) approach, an analysis of the consumption pattern was performed regarding per inhabitant consumption based on the revised metabolic rate. The consumption quantity of illicit drug and precursor was divided into four categories based on statistical difference analyses: methamphetamine and ephedrine (precursor) were the predominant drugs in the first category, followed by ketamine and heroin in the second category, methcathinone and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) in the third category, and cocaine and methadone in the fourth category. There were distinctive spatial patterns: heroin and cocaine consumption was higher in Southern China than in Northern China, heroin consumption was higher in Western China than in Eastern China, and the consumption of each drug differed across seven regions of China, especially with ephedrine and methcathinone consumption higher in North China; heroin consumption higher in Southwest, Central, and Northwest China; and ketamine and MDMA consumption higher in East, South, and Central China. Compared with findings in previous studies, there were temporal patterns, in which ketamine consumption presented a downward trend but heroin remained stable. Based on correlation analyses, there were the polydrug abuse patterns between heroin and cocaine, methcathinone and ketamine, and cocaine and MDMA. In general, this study based on WBE provides a comprehensive evaluation of drug consumption in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Yu Liu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, China
| | - Wen-Jing Yu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, China
| | - Yi-Ru Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, China
| | - Xue-Ting Shao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, China
| | - De-Gao Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, China.
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25
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Hahn RZ, Augusto do Nascimento C, Linden R. Evaluation of Illicit Drug Consumption by Wastewater Analysis Using Polar Organic Chemical Integrative Sampler as a Monitoring Tool. Front Chem 2021; 9:596875. [PMID: 33859973 PMCID: PMC8042236 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.596875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Illicit drug abuse is a worldwide social and health problem, and monitoring illicit drug use is of paramount importance in the context of public policies. It is already known that relevant epidemiologic information can be obtained from the analysis of urban residual waters. This approach, named wastewater-based epidemiology (WBE), is based on the measurement of specific markers, resulting from human biotransformation of the target drugs, as indicators of the consumption of the compounds by the population served by the wastewater treatment installation under investigation. Drug consumption estimation based on WBE requires sewage sampling strategies that express the concentrations along the whole time period of time. To this end, the most common approach is the use of automatic composite samplers. However, this active sampling procedure is costly, especially for long-term studies and in limited-resources settings. An alternative, cost-effective, sampling strategy is the use of passive samplers, like the polar organic chemical integrative sampler (POCIS). POCIS sampling has already been applied to the estimation of exposure to pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and some drugs of abuse, and some studies evaluated the comparative performances of POCIS and automatic composite samplers. In this context, this manuscript aims to review the most important biomarkers of drugs of abuse consumption in wastewater, the fundamentals of POCIS sampling in WBE, the previous application of POCIS for WBE of drugs of abuse, and to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of POCIS sampling, in comparison with other strategies used in WBE. POCIS sampling is an effective strategy to obtain a representative overview of biomarker concentrations in sewage over time, with a small number of analyzed samples, increased detection limits, with lower costs than active sampling. Just a few studies applied POCIS sampling for WBE of drugs of abuse, but the available data support the use of POCIS as a valuable tool for the long-term monitoring of the consumption of certain drugs within a defined population, particularly in limited-resources settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Zilles Hahn
- Laboratory of Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil
| | | | - Rafael Linden
- Laboratory of Analytical Toxicology, Universidade Feevale, Novo Hamburgo, Brazil.,National Institute of Forensic Science and Technology (INCT Forense), Porto Alegre, Brazil
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Asicioglu F, Kuloglu Genc M, Tekin Bulbul T, Yayla M, Simsek SZ, Adioren C, Mercan S. Investigation of temporal illicit drugs, alcohol and tobacco trends in Istanbul city: Wastewater analysis of 14 treatment plants. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 190:116729. [PMID: 33341037 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 12/02/2020] [Accepted: 12/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater-based drug monitoring is a complementary tool that has been used worldwide in recent years, and many cities have periodically reported monitoring results. However, this study is the first to analyze drugs in wastewater in a single city with a high population during four periods simultaneously from 14 treatment plants. The aim was to estimate the consumption of conventional illicit drugs [amphetamine (AMP), methamphetamine (METH), 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cannabis, cocaine, and heroin], tobacco, and alcohol in 2019 for quarterly periods in Istanbul city, which has a population of almost 20 million, to aid in implementing evidence-based measures. Additionally, the seasonal variations among the 14 wastewater treatment plants and their weekday/weekend comparison of drug use patterns and consumption per substance were examined. Solid phase extraction was followed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and a previously validated method was enhanced by adding new parameters (morphine, cotinine, and ethyl sulfate), and satisfactory results were obtained. In this study, alcohol, nicotine, and cannabis had the highest estimated per capita consumption with mean values of 29655.3 mL/1000 inh/day, 5507.6 mg/1000 inh/day and 3607.0 mg/1000 inh/day, respectively. These results were followed by heroin and cocaine consumption with mean values of 557.0 and 200.9 mg/1000 inh/day, respectively, whereas AMP-type stimulants had the lowest values among the targeted substances. METH and cannabis were also highly consumed drugs when compared with the results of other metropolitan cities, whereas heroin consumption was remarkably high owing to Turkey's location on a possible heroin trafficking route. Because Istanbul is the business center of the country and has the potential to attract tourists in all four seasons, meaningful seasonal consumption differences were not observed for all substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Asicioglu
- Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Institute of Forensic Sciences and Legal Medicine, Department of Medicine, 34500, Buyukcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - M Kuloglu Genc
- Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Institute of Forensic Sciences and Legal Medicine, Department of Science, 34500, Buyukcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - T Tekin Bulbul
- Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Institute of Forensic Sciences and Legal Medicine, Department of Science, 34500, Buyukcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - M Yayla
- Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Institute of Forensic Sciences and Legal Medicine, Department of Science, 34500, Buyukcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - S Z Simsek
- Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Institute of Forensic Sciences and Legal Medicine, Department of Science, 34500, Buyukcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - C Adioren
- Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Institute of Forensic Sciences and Legal Medicine, Department of Science, 34500, Buyukcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - S Mercan
- Istanbul University-Cerrahpasa, Institute of Forensic Sciences and Legal Medicine, Department of Science, 34500, Buyukcekmece, Istanbul, Turkey.
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Proctor K, Petrie B, Lopardo L, Muñoz DC, Rice J, Barden R, Arnot T, Kasprzyk-Hordern B. Micropollutant fluxes in urban environment - A catchment perspective. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 401:123745. [PMID: 33113728 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
This study provided a holistic understanding of the sources, fate and behaviour of 142 compounds of emerging concern (CECs) throughout a river catchment impacted by 5 major urban areas. Of the incoming 169.3 kg d-1 of CECs entering the WwTWs, 167.9 kg d-1 were present in the liquid phase of influent and 1.4 kg d-1 were present in the solid phase (solid particulate matter, SPM). Analysis of SPM was important to determine accurate loads of incoming antidepressants and antifungal compounds, which are primarily found in the solid phase. Furthermore, these classes and the plasticiser, bisphenol A (BPA) were the highest contributors to CEC load in digested solids. Population normalised loads showed little variation across the catchment at 154 ± 12 mg d-1 inhabitant-1 indicating that population size is the main driver of CECs in the studied catchment. Across the catchment 154.6 kg d-1 were removed from the liquid phase during treatment processes. CECs discharged into surface waters from individual WwTWs contributed between 0.19 kg d-1 at WwTW A to 7.3 kg d-1 at WwTW E, which correlated strongly with the respective contributing populations. Spatial and temporal variations of individual CECs and their respective classes were found in WwTW influent (both solid (influentSPM) and liquid phases (influentAQ)) throughout the catchment, showing that different urban areas impact the catchment in different ways, with key variables being lifestyle, use of over-the-counter pharmaceuticals and industrial activity. Understanding of both spatial and temporal variation of CECs at the catchment level helped to identify possible instances of direct disposal, as in the case of carbamazepine. Analysis of surface waters throughout the catchment showed increasing mass loads of CECs from upstream of WwTW A to downstream at WwTW D, showing clear individual contributions from WwTWs. Many CECs were ubiquitous throughout the river water in the catchment. Daily loads ranged from 0.005 g d-1 (ketamine, WwTW A) up to 1890.3 g d-1 (metformin, WwTW C) for the 84/138 CECs that were detected downstream of the WwTWs. For metformin this represents the equivalent of ∼1,890 tablets (1,000 mg per tablet) dissolved in the river water downstream of WwTW C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn Proctor
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; Water Innovation & Research Centre (WIRC), University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Bruce Petrie
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; Water Innovation & Research Centre (WIRC), University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; School of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen AB10 7JG, UK
| | - Luigi Lopardo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; Water Innovation & Research Centre (WIRC), University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Dolores Camacho Muñoz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; Manchester Pharmacy School, The University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
| | - Jack Rice
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; Water Innovation & Research Centre (WIRC), University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | | | - Tom Arnot
- Water Innovation & Research Centre (WIRC), University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | - Barbara Kasprzyk-Hordern
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK; Water Innovation & Research Centre (WIRC), University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK.
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28
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How ZT, Gamal El-Din M. A critical review on the detection, occurrence, fate, toxicity, and removal of cannabinoids in the water system and the environment. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 268:115642. [PMID: 33032096 PMCID: PMC7489229 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Cannabinoids are a group of organic compounds found in cannabis. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), the two major constituents of cannabinoids, and their metabolites are contaminants of emerging concern due to the limited information on their environmental impacts. As well, their releases to the water systems and environment are expected to increase due to recent legalization. Solid-phase extraction is the most common technique for the extraction and pre-concentration of cannabinoids in water samples as well as a clean-up step after the extraction of cannabinoids from solid samples. Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry is the most common technique used for the analysis of cannabinoids. THC and its metabolites have been detected in wastewater, surface water, and drinking water. In particular, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) has been detected at concentrations up to 2590 and 169 ng L-1 in untreated and treated wastewater, respectively, 79.9 ng L-1 in surface water, and 1 ng L-1 in drinking water. High removal of cannabinoids has been observed in wastewater treatment plants; this is likely a result of adsorption due to the low aqueous solubility of cannabinoids. Based on the estrogenicity and cytotoxicity studies and modelling, it has been predicted that THC and THC-COOH pose moderate risk for adverse impact on the environment. While chlorination and photo-oxidation have been shown to be effective in the removal of THC-COOH, they also produce by-products that are potentially more toxic than regulated disinfection by-products. The potential of indirect exposure to cannabinoids and their metabolites through recreational water is of great interest. As cannabinoids and especially their by-products may have adverse impacts on the environment and public health, more studies on their occurrence in various types of water and environmental systems, as well as on their environmental toxicity, would be required to accurately assess their impact on the environment and public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuo Tong How
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 1H9
| | - Mohamed Gamal El-Din
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 1H9.
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Song XB, Shao XT, Liu SY, Tan DQ, Wang Z, Wang DG. Assessment of metformin, nicotine, caffeine, and methamphetamine use during Chinese public holidays. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 258:127354. [PMID: 32544816 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.127354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Metformin, nicotine, caffeine, and methamphetamine are widely used in China. However, the consumption pattern of these substances among the general population during Chinese public holidays may be different. Influent wastewater samples were collected from a municipal wastewater treatment plant in Yingkou, China on public holidays (n = 6) and working days (n = 20) to examine the changes in metformin, nicotine, caffeine, and methamphetamine consumption. The consumption of metformin in the city ranged from 1.94 to 14.4 g d-1 1000 people-1, while that of nicotine, caffeine, and methamphetamine ranged from 0.46 to 2.18 g d-1 1000 people-1, 31.8-89.8 g d-1 1000 people-1, and 87.0-657 mg d-1 1000 people-1, respectively. The highest consumption of metformin, caffeine, and methamphetamine was observed during the Spring Festival. The results indicated that the consumption of these substances showed almost the same trend and was higher during the Spring Festival, which may be influenced by personal habits and traditional festival reunions. There is a correlation between the consumption of nicotine and caffeine. Moreover, there are correlations between the consumption of metformin and nicotine, caffeine, as well as methamphetamine. The information based on wastewater epidemiology and consumption behavior, suggests that drug use in the region requires more attention or monitoring during holidays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Bo Song
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Xue-Ting Shao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Si-Yu Liu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Dong-Qin Tan
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China
| | - Zhuang Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, No. 219 Ningliu Road, Nanjing, 210044, China
| | - De-Gao Wang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, No. 1 Linghai Road, Dalian, 116026, China.
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