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Vilar DS, Correia da Silva HH, Dória AR, Torres NH, Vallim JH, Salgado de Castro VLS, Américo-Pinheiro JHP, Salazar-Banda GR, Barrios Eguiluz KI, Ferreira LFR. Reducing citrus effluent toxicity: Biological-electrochemical treatment with diamond anode. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 346:123688. [PMID: 38431247 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
One challenge of the citrus industry is the treatment and disposal of its effluents due to their high toxicity, substantial organic load, and consequent resistance to conventional biotechnological processes. This study introduces a novel approach, using electrochemical oxidation with a boron-doped diamond anode to efficiently remove organic compounds from biodegraded pulp wash (treated using the fungus Pleurotus sajor-caju.) The findings reveal that employing a current density of 20 mA cm-2 achieves notable results, including a 44.1% reduction in color, a 70.0% decrease in chemical oxygen demand, an 88.0% reduction in turbidity, and an impressive 99.7% removal of total organic carbon (TOC) after 6 h of electrolysis. The energy consumption was estimated at 2.93 kWh g-1 of removed TOC. This sequential biological-electrochemical procedure not only significantly reduced the mortality rate (85%) of Danio rerio embryos but also reduced the incidence of morphologically altered parameters. Regarding acute toxicity (LC50) of the residue, the process demonstrated a mortality reduction of 6.97% for D. rerio and a 40.88% lethality decrease for Lactuca sativa seeds. The substantial reduction in toxicity and organic load observed in this study highlights the potential applicability of combined biological and electrochemical treatments for real agroindustrial residues or their effluents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Débora S Vilar
- Institute of Technology and Research (ITP), Av. Murilo Dantas, 300, Farolândia, 49032-490, Aracaju-Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Hugo H Correia da Silva
- Institute of Technology and Research (ITP), Av. Murilo Dantas, 300, Farolândia, 49032-490, Aracaju-Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Aline R Dória
- Graduate Program in Process Engineering, Tiradentes University (UNIT), Av. Murilo Dantas, 300, Farolândia, 49032-490, Aracaju-Sergipe, Brazil; Institute of Technology and Research (ITP), Av. Murilo Dantas, 300, Farolândia, 49032-490, Aracaju-Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Nádia H Torres
- Graduate Program in Genomic Sciences and Biotechnology, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília, 71966-700, Brazil.
| | - José H Vallim
- Laboratory of Ecotoxicology and Biosafety, Embrapa Environment, Jaguariuna, São Paulo 13820-000, Brazil
| | | | - Juliana Heloisa Pinê Américo-Pinheiro
- Department of Forest Science, Soils and Environment, School of Agronomic Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Ave. Universitária, 3780, Botucatu, SP, 18610-034, Brazil; Graduate Program in Environmental Sciences, Brazil University, Street Carolina Fonseca, 584, São Paulo - SP, 08230-030, Brazil
| | - Giancarlo R Salazar-Banda
- Graduate Program in Process Engineering, Tiradentes University (UNIT), Av. Murilo Dantas, 300, Farolândia, 49032-490, Aracaju-Sergipe, Brazil; Institute of Technology and Research (ITP), Av. Murilo Dantas, 300, Farolândia, 49032-490, Aracaju-Sergipe, Brazil.
| | - Katlin I Barrios Eguiluz
- Graduate Program in Process Engineering, Tiradentes University (UNIT), Av. Murilo Dantas, 300, Farolândia, 49032-490, Aracaju-Sergipe, Brazil; Institute of Technology and Research (ITP), Av. Murilo Dantas, 300, Farolândia, 49032-490, Aracaju-Sergipe, Brazil
| | - Luiz Fernando R Ferreira
- Graduate Program in Genomic Sciences and Biotechnology, Catholic University of Brasília, Brasília, 71966-700, Brazil.
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Dawe RE, Bragg LM, Dhiyebi HA, Servos MR, Craig PM. Investigating wastewater treatment plant effluent and pharmaceutical exposure on innate cytokine expression of darters (Etheostoma spp.) in the Grand River watershed. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2024; 269:110875. [PMID: 37315837 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2023.110875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Fish live in continuous contact with various stressors and antigenic material present within their environments. The impact of stressors associated with wastewater-exposed environments on fish has become of particular interest in toxicology studies. The objectives of this study were to examine potential effects of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent-associated stressors on innate cytokine expression within the gills of darter species (Etheostoma spp.), using both field and laboratory approaches. Male and female darters (rainbow, greenside, fantail, and johnny darters) were collected upstream and downstream of the Waterloo WWTP in the Grand River, Ontario. Gill samples were collected from fish in the field and from a second subset of fish brought back to the laboratory. Laboratory fish were acutely exposed (96-h) to an environmentally relevant concentration of venlafaxine (1.0 μg/L), a commonly prescribed antidepressant. To assess the impacts of these stressors on the innate immunity of darters, the expression of key innate cytokines was examined. Minor significant effects on innate cytokine expression were observed between upstream and downstream fish. Moderate effects on cytokine expression were observed in venlafaxine-exposed fish compared to their control counterparts however, changes were not indicative of a biologically significant immune response occurring due to the exposure. Although the results of this study did not display extensive impacts of effluent and pharmaceutical exposure on innate cytokine expression within the gills, they provide a novel avenue of study, illustrating the importance of examining potential impacts that effluent-associated stressors can have on fundamental immune responses of native fish species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel E Dawe
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada.
| | - Leslie M Bragg
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Hadi A Dhiyebi
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Mark R Servos
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Paul M Craig
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave W, Waterloo, ON N2L 3G1, Canada
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Yin J, Hu J, Deng X, Zheng Y, Tian J. ABC transporter-mediated MXR mechanism in fish embryos and its potential role in the efflux of nanoparticles. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 263:115397. [PMID: 37619399 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are believed to protect aquatic organisms by pumping xenobiotics out, and recent investigation has suggested their involvement in the detoxification and efflux of nanoparticles (NPs), but their roles in fish embryos are poorly understood. In this regard, this paper summarizes the recent advances in research pertaining to the development of ABC transporter-mediated multi-xenobiotic resistance (MXR) mechanism in fish embryos and the potential interaction between ABC transporters and NPs. The paper focuses on: (1) Expression, function, and modulation mechanism of ABC proteins in fish embryos; (2) Potential interaction between ABC transporters and NPs in cell models and fish embryos. ABC transporters could be maternally transferred to fish embryos and thus play an important role in the detoxification of various chemical pollutants and NPs. There is a need to understand the specific mechanism to benefit the protection of aquatic resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Yin
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215163, PR China; Jinan Guo Ke Medical Technology Development Co., Ltd, Jinan 250001, PR China.
| | - Jia Hu
- School of Biology & Basic Medical Sciences, Medical College, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, PR China.
| | - Xudong Deng
- Key Laboratory for Space Bioscience and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, PR China
| | - Yu Zheng
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215163, PR China; School of Biomedical Engineering (Suzhou), Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215163, PR China
| | - Jingjing Tian
- CAS Key Lab of Bio-Medical Diagnostics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215163, PR China; Jinan Guo Ke Medical Technology Development Co., Ltd, Jinan 250001, PR China
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4
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Oliveira AC, Fascineli ML, de Oliveira PM, Gelfuso GM, Villacis RAR, Grisolia CK. Multi-level toxicity assessment of the antidepressant venlafaxine in embryos/larvae and adults of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Genet Mol Biol 2023; 46:e20220377. [PMID: 37695571 PMCID: PMC10494572 DOI: 10.1590/1678-4685-gmb-2022-0377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The toxic effects of venlafaxine (VLX) on aquatic organisms have already been verified and therefore are a proven matter of concern. Herein, we evaluated zebrafish embryos/adults after acute exposure to VLX. Embryos/larvae were exposed to different concentrations of VLX (100-1000 mg/L; 1.33 as a dilution factor), to evaluate mortality/developmental changos and to analyze biomarkers (0.002-100 mg/L). For adults, mortality, genotoxicity, and biomarkers were assessed in five different concentrations of VLX (1-100 mg/L). The median lethal concentration (LC50-168h) was 274.1 mg/L for embryos/larvae, and >100 mg/L for adults (LC50-96h). VLX decreased the heart rate frequency and caused premature hatching and lack of equilibrium in embryos/larvae exposed to different concentrations ranging from 100 to 562.5 mg/L. The activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) was inhibited in larvae exposed to 1, 25 and 100 mg/L. Glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity was reduced in both larvae and adults after exposure to different concentrations, mainly at 25 mg/L. For both larvae and adults, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity increased after 100 mg/L of VLX exposure. No DNA damage was observed in peripheral erythrocytes. Exposure to VLX may cause adverse effects on zebrafish in their early and adult life stages, interfering with embryo-larval development, and can induce physiological disturbances in adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Clara Oliveira
- Universidade de Brasília (UnB), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas,
Departamento de Genética e Morfologia, Laboratório de Genética Toxicológica (GTOX),
Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Maria Luiza Fascineli
- Universidade de Brasília (UnB), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas,
Departamento de Genética e Morfologia, Laboratório de Genética Toxicológica (GTOX),
Brasília, DF, Brazil
- Universidade Federal da Paraíba (UFPB), Centro de Ciências da Saúde,
Departamento de Morfologia (DMORF), João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
| | - Paula Martins de Oliveira
- Universidade de Brasília (UnB), Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde,
Laboratório de Tecnologia de Medicamentos, Alimentos e Cosméticos (LTMAC), Brasília,
DF, Brazil
| | - Guilherme Martins Gelfuso
- Universidade de Brasília (UnB), Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde,
Laboratório de Tecnologia de Medicamentos, Alimentos e Cosméticos (LTMAC), Brasília,
DF, Brazil
| | - Rolando André Rios Villacis
- Universidade de Brasília (UnB), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas,
Departamento de Genética e Morfologia, Laboratório de Genética Toxicológica (GTOX),
Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - Cesar Koppe Grisolia
- Universidade de Brasília (UnB), Instituto de Ciências Biológicas,
Departamento de Genética e Morfologia, Laboratório de Genética Toxicológica (GTOX),
Brasília, DF, Brazil
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Ben Chabchoubi I, Lam SS, Pane SE, Ksibi M, Guerriero G, Hentati O. Hazard and health risk assessment of exposure to pharmaceutical active compounds via toxicological evaluation by zebrafish. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 324:120698. [PMID: 36435277 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The uncontrolled or continuous release of effluents from wastewater treatment plants leads to the omnipresence of pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) in the aquatic media. Today, this is a confirmed problem becoming a main subject of twin public and scientific concerns. However, still little information is available about the long-term impacts of these PhACs on aquatic organisms. In this review, efforts were made to reveal correlation between the occurrence in the environment, ecotoxicological and health risks of different PhACs via toxicological evaluation by zebrafish (Danio rerio). This animal model served as a bioindicator for any health impacts after the exposure to these contaminants and to better understand the responses in relation to human diseases. This review paper focused on the calculation of Risk Quotients (RQs) of 34 PhACs based on environmental and ecotoxicological data available in the literature and prediction from the ECOSAR V2.2 software. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first report on the risk assessment of PhACs by the two different methods as mentioned above. RQs showed greater difference in potential environmental risks of the PhACs. These differences in risk values underline the importance of environmental and experimental factors in exposure conditions and the interpretation of RQ values. While the results showed high risk to Danio rerio of the majority of PhACs, risk qualification of the others varied between moderate to insignifiant. Further research is needed to assess pharmaceutical hazards when present in wastewater before discharge and monitor the effectiveness of treatment processes. The recent new advances in the morphological assessment of toxicant-exposed zebrafish larvae for the determination of test compounds effects on the developmental endpoints were also discussed. This review emphasizes the need for strict regulations on the release of PhACs into environmental media in order to minimize their toxicity to aquatic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imen Ben Chabchoubi
- Institut Supérieur de Biotechnologie de Monastir, Université de Monastir, Rue Taher Haddad, 5000, Monastir, Tunisia; Laboratoire Génie de l'Environnement et Ecotechnologie (GEET), Université de Sfax, Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Sfax (ENIS), Route de Soukra, Km 3.5, B.P. 1173, 3038, Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Su Shiung Lam
- Higher Institution Center of Excellence (HICoE), Institute of Tropical Aquaculture and Fisheries (AKUATROP), University Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, 21030, Terengganu, Malaysia; Sustainability Cluster, School of Engineering, University of Petroleum & Energy Studies, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, 248007, India
| | - Stacey Ellen Pane
- Department of Biology, Federico II University of Naples, Via Cinthia 26, 80126, Napoli, Italy
| | - Mohamed Ksibi
- Laboratoire Génie de l'Environnement et Ecotechnologie (GEET), Université de Sfax, Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Sfax (ENIS), Route de Soukra, Km 3.5, B.P. 1173, 3038, Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Giulia Guerriero
- Department of Biology, Federico II University of Naples, Via Cinthia 26, 80126, Napoli, Italy
| | - Olfa Hentati
- Laboratoire Génie de l'Environnement et Ecotechnologie (GEET), Université de Sfax, Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs de Sfax (ENIS), Route de Soukra, Km 3.5, B.P. 1173, 3038, Sfax, Tunisia; Institut Supérieur de Biotechnologie de Sfax, Université de Sfax, Route de Soukra, Km 4.5, B.P 1175, 3038, Sfax, Tunisia.
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6
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Rodrigues P, Guimarães L, Carvalho AP, Oliva-Teles L. Carbamazepine, venlafaxine, tramadol, and their main metabolites: Toxicological effects on zebrafish embryos and larvae. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 448:130909. [PMID: 36860067 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.130909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Revised: 01/18/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceutical compounds and their metabolites are found in natural and wastewater. However, investigation of their toxic effects on aquatic animals has been neglected, especially for metabolites. This work investigated the effects of the main metabolites of carbamazepine, venlafaxine and tramadol. Zebrafish embryos were exposed (0.1-100 µg/L) for 168hpf exposures to each metabolite (carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide, 10,11-dihydrocarbamazepine, O-desmethylvenlafaxine, N-desmethylvenlafaxine, O-desmethyltramadol, N-desmethyltramadol) or the parental compound. A concentration-response relationship was found for the effects of some embryonic malformations. Carbamazepine-10,11-epoxide, O-desmethylvenlafaxine and tramadol elicited the highest malformation rates. All compounds significantly decreased larvae responses on a sensorimotor assay compared to controls. Altered expression was found for most of the 32 tested genes. In particular, abcc1, abcc2, abcg2a, nrf2, pparg and raraa were found to be affected by all three drug groups. For each group, the modelled expression patterns showed differences in expression between parental compounds and metabolites. Potential biomarkers of exposure were identified for the venlafaxine and carbamazepine groups. These results are worrying, indicating that such contamination in aquatic systems may put natural populations at significant risk. Furthermore, metabolites represent a real risk that needs more scrutinising by the scientific community.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Rodrigues
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research - CIIMAR, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal; Faculty of Sciences - Biology Department, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - L Guimarães
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research - CIIMAR, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal; Faculty of Sciences - Biology Department, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - A P Carvalho
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research - CIIMAR, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal; Faculty of Sciences - Biology Department, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - L Oliva-Teles
- Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research - CIIMAR, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal; Faculty of Sciences - Biology Department, Rua do Campo Alegre s/n, University of Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
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Medkova D, Hollerova A, Riesova B, Blahova J, Hodkovicova N, Marsalek P, Doubkova V, Weiserova Z, Mares J, Faldyna M, Tichy F, Svobodova Z, Lakdawala P. Pesticides and Parabens Contaminating Aquatic Environment: Acute and Sub-Chronic Toxicity towards Early-Life Stages of Freshwater Fish and Amphibians. TOXICS 2023; 11:333. [PMID: 37112561 PMCID: PMC10141211 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11040333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Pesticides and personal care products are two very important groups of contaminants posing a threat to the aquatic environment and the organisms living in it.. Therefore, this study aimed to describe the effects of widely used pesticides and parabens on aquatic non-target biota such as fish (using model organisms Danio rerio and Cyprinus carpio) and amphibians (using model organism Xenopus laevis) using a wide range of endpoints. The first part of the experiment was focused on the embryonal toxicity of three widely used pesticides (metazachlor, prochloraz, and 4-chloro-2-methyl phenoxy acetic acid) and three parabens (methylparaben, propylparaben, and butylparaben) with D. rerio, C. carpio, and X. laevis embryos. An emphasis was placed on using mostly sub-lethal concentrations that are partially relevant to the environmental concentrations of the substances studied. In the second part of the study, an embryo-larval toxicity test with C. carpio was carried out with prochloraz using concentrations 0.1, 1, 10, 100, and 1000 µg/L. The results of both parts of the study show that even the low, environmentally relevant concentrations of the chemicals tested are often able to affect the expression of genes that play either a prominent role in detoxification and sex hormone production or indicate cell stress or, in case of prochloraz, to induce genotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denisa Medkova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Zoology, Fisheries, Hydrobiology and Apiculture, Faculty of Agrisciences, Mendel University in Brno, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Animal Breeding, Animal Nutrition and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Aneta Hollerova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Riesova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Blahova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Nikola Hodkovicova
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Marsalek
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Doubkova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zuzana Weiserova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Mares
- Department of Zoology, Fisheries, Hydrobiology and Apiculture, Faculty of Agrisciences, Mendel University in Brno, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Faldyna
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Frantisek Tichy
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary medicine, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zdenka Svobodova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Pavla Lakdawala
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, 612 42 Brno, Czech Republic
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8
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Hodkovicova N, Hollerova A, Blahova J, Mikula P, Crhanova M, Karasova D, Franc A, Pavlokova S, Mares J, Postulkova E, Tichy F, Marsalek P, Lanikova J, Faldyna M, Svobodova Z. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs caused an outbreak of inflammation and oxidative stress with changes in the gut microbiota in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 849:157921. [PMID: 35952865 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
One of the main contributors to pharmaceutical pollution of surface waters are non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that contaminate the food chain and affect non-target water species. As there are not many studies focusing on toxic effects of NSAIDs on freshwater fish species and specially effects after dietary exposure, we selected rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) as the ideal model to examine the impact of two NSAIDs - diclofenac (DCF) and ibuprofen (IBP). The aim of our study was to test toxicity of environmentally relevant concentrations of these drugs together with exposure doses of 100× higher, including their mixture; and to deepen knowledge about the mechanism of toxicity of these drugs. This study revealed kidneys as the most affected organ with hyalinosis, an increase in oxidative stress markers, and changes in gene expression of heat shock protein 70 to be signs of renal toxicity. Furthermore, hepatotoxicity was confirmed by histopathological analysis (i.e. dystrophy, congestion, and inflammatory cell increase), change in biochemical markers, increase in heat shock protein 70 mRNA, and by oxidative stress analysis. The gills were locally deformed and showed signs of inflammatory processes and necrotic areas. Given the increase in oxidative stress markers and heat shock protein 70 mRNA, severe impairment of oxygen transport may be one of the toxic pathways of NSAIDs. Regarding the microbiota, an overgrowth of Gram-positive species was detected; in particular, significant dysbiosis in the Fusobacteria/Firmicutes ratio was observed. In conclusion, the changes observed after dietary exposure to NSAIDs can influence the organism homeostasis, induce ROS production, potentiate inflammations, and cause gut dysbiosis. Even the environmentally relevant concentration of NSAIDs pose a risk to the aquatic ecosystem as it changed O. mykiss health parameters and we assume that the toxicity of NSAIDs manifests itself at the level of mitochondria and proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Hodkovicova
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - A Hollerova
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic; Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - J Blahova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - P Mikula
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - M Crhanova
- Department of Microbiology and Antimicrobial Resistance, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - D Karasova
- Department of Microbiology and Antimicrobial Resistance, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - A Franc
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - S Pavlokova
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - J Mares
- Department of Zoology, Fisheries, Hydrobiology and Apiculture, Faculty of AgriSciences, Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic
| | - E Postulkova
- Department of Zoology, Fisheries, Hydrobiology and Apiculture, Faculty of AgriSciences, Mendel University in Brno, Czech Republic
| | - F Tichy
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - P Marsalek
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - J Lanikova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - M Faldyna
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Z Svobodova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
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9
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Hodkovicova N, Hollerova A, Svobodova Z, Faldyna M, Faggio C. Effects of plastic particles on aquatic invertebrates and fish - A review. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2022; 96:104013. [PMID: 36375728 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2022.104013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
This review summarises the current knowledge on the effects of microplastics and their additives on organisms living in the aquatic environment, particularly invertebrates and fish. To date, microplastics have been recognised to affect not only the behaviour of aquatic animals but also their proper development, causing variations in fertility, oxidative stress, inflammations and immunotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and changes in metabolic pathways and gene expression. The ability of microplastics to bind other xenobiotics and cause combined toxicity along side the effect of other agents is also discussed as well. Microplastics are highly recalcitrant materials in both freshwater and marine environments and should be considered extremely toxic to aquatic ecosystems. They are severely problematic from ecological, economic and toxicological standpoints.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Hodkovicova
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - A Hollerova
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic; Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Z Svobodova
- Department of Animal Protection and Welfare & Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Hygiene and Ecology, University of Veterinary Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - M Faldyna
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - C Faggio
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.
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10
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Ribeiro O, Félix L, Ribeiro C, Castro B, Tiritan ME, Monteiro SM, Carrola JS. Enantioselective Ecotoxicity of Venlafaxine in Aquatic Organisms: Daphnia and Zebrafish. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2022; 41:1851-1864. [PMID: 35452529 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Venlafaxine is a chiral antidepressant detected in aquatic compartments. It was recently included in the 3rd Watch List from the European Union. The present study aimed to investigate venlafaxine toxicity effects, targeting possible enantioselective effects, using two aquatic organisms, daphnia (Daphnia magna) and zebrafish (Danio rerio). Specimens were exposed to both racemate, (R,S)-venlafaxine (VEN), and to pure enantiomers. Acute assays with daphnia showed that up to 50 000 μg/L of the (R,S)-VEN induced no toxicity. Organisms were also exposed to sublethal concentrations (25-400 μg/L) of (R,S)-, (R)- and (S)-VEN, for 21 days. No significant effects on mortality, age at first reproduction, and size of the first clutch were observed. However, a decrease in fecundity was observed for both enantiomers at the highest concentration. Regarding zebrafish, the effects of venlafaxine on mortality, embryo development, behavior, biochemistry, and melanin pigmentation were investigated after 96 h of exposure to the range of 0.3-3000 μg/L. (R)-VEN significantly increased the percentage of malformations in comparison with (S)-VEN. Behavior was also enantiomer dependent, with a decrease in the total distance moved and an increase in avoidance behavior observed in organisms exposed to (R)-VEN. Despite the biochemical variations, no changes in redox homeostasis were observed. (R)-VEN also led to an increase in zebrafish pigmentation. The different susceptibility to venlafaxine and enantioselective effects were observed in zebrafish. Our results suggest that at environmental levels (R,S)-VEN and pure enantiomers are not expected to induce harmful effects in both organisms, but (R)-VEN increased malformations in zebrafish larvae, even at reported environmental levels. These results highlight the importance of including enantioselective studies for an accurate risk assessment of chiral pollutants. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:1851-1864. © 2022 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ondina Ribeiro
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Luís Félix
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, Vila Real, Portugal
- Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production, Vila Real, Portugal
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Health, Laboratory Animal Science, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Cláudia Ribeiro
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, Matosinhos, Portugal
- Toxicology Research Unit, University Institute of Health Sciences, CESPU, CRL, Gandra, Portugal
| | - Bruno Castro
- Department of Biology, Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
- Institute of Science and Innovation for Bio-Sustainability, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Maria Elizabeth Tiritan
- Interdisciplinary Center of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Edifício do Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Av. General Norton de Matos s/n, Matosinhos, Portugal
- Toxicology Research Unit, University Institute of Health Sciences, CESPU, CRL, Gandra, Portugal
- Organic and Pharmaceutical Chemistry Laboratory, Chemical Sciences Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua Jorge de Viterbo Ferreira, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sandra Mariza Monteiro
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, Vila Real, Portugal
- Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - João Soares Carrola
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, Vila Real, Portugal
- Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production, Vila Real, Portugal
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11
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Yu B, Han Q, Li C, Zhu Y, Jin X, Dai Z. Influencing factors of venlafaxine degradation at boron-doped diamond anode. ARAB J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arabjc.2021.103463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
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12
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Castillo-Zacarías C, Barocio ME, Hidalgo-Vázquez E, Sosa-Hernández JE, Parra-Arroyo L, López-Pacheco IY, Barceló D, Iqbal HNM, Parra-Saldívar R. Antidepressant drugs as emerging contaminants: Occurrence in urban and non-urban waters and analytical methods for their detection. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 757:143722. [PMID: 33221013 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Antidepressants are drugs with a direct action on the brain's biochemistry through their interaction with the neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. The increasing worldwide contamination from these drugs may be witnessed through their increasing presence in the urban water cycle. Furthermore, their occurrence has been detected in non-urban water, such as rivers and oceans. Some endemic aquatic animals, such as certain fish and mollusks, have bioaccumulated different antidepressant drugs in their tissues. This problem will increase in the years to come because the present COVID-19 pandemic has increased the general worldwide occurrence of depression and anxiety, triggering the consumption of antidepressants and, consequently, their presence in the environment. This work provides information on the occurrence of the most administrated antidepressants in urban waters, wastewater treatment plants, rivers, and oceans. Furthermore, it provides an overview of the analytical approaches currently used to detect each antidepressant presented. Finally, the ecotoxicological effect of antidepressants on several in vivo models are listed. Considering the information provided in this review, there is an urgent need to test the presence of antidepressant members of the MAOI and TCA groups. Furthermore, incorporating new degradation/immobilization technologies in WWTPs will be useful to stop the increasing occurrence of these drugs in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mario E Barocio
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
| | | | | | - Lizeth Parra-Arroyo
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
| | - Itzel Y López-Pacheco
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico
| | - Damià Barceló
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (IDAEA-CSIC), Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain; Catalan Institute of Water Research, Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, c/Emili Grahit, 101, Edifici H2O, 17003 Girona, Spain; College of Environmental and Resources Sciences, Zhejiang A&F University, Hangzhou 311300, China
| | - Hafiz N M Iqbal
- Tecnologico de Monterrey, School of Engineering and Sciences, Monterrey 64849, Mexico.
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13
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Luu I, Ikert H, Craig PM. Chronic exposure to anthropogenic and climate related stressors alters transcriptional responses in the liver of zebrafish (Danio rerio) across multiple generations. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2021; 240:108918. [PMID: 33141083 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2020.108918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The antidepressant, venlafaxine (VFX), and climate change stressors, such as increased water temperature and decreased dissolved oxygen, are current threats to aquatic environments. This study aimed to determine how microRNAs (miRNAs) and predicted targeted transcripts were altered in livers of zebrafish exposed to these stressors, and livers of their un-exposed F1 and F2 offspring. Following a 21 day exposure to multiple stressors (1 μg/L VFX, +5 °C ambient, 50% O2), then a subsequent 21 day recovery, relative abundances of cyp3a65, hsp70, hsp90, and ppargc1a and miRNAs predicted to target them (miR-142a, miR-16c, miR-181c, and miR-129, respectively) were measured in the liver via quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR). There were significant decreases in miR-142a in the exposed F0 generation and the exposed F1 generation. While there were no changes detected in cyp3a65 relative abundance, there was a significant inverse relationship between cyp3a65 and miR-142a. Hsp70 expression significantly increased in the F1 generation, which persisted to the F2 generation and the relative abundance of hsp90 significantly increased in all generations. There was a significant reduction in miR-181c in the F1 generation, but there was no significant relationship between miR-181c and hsp90. Finally, there was a significant decrease in ppargc1a relative abundance in the F1 generation which was associated with an increase in miR-129. Combined, these results suggest that parental exposure to multiple, environmentally relevant stressors can confer transcriptional and epigenetic responses in the F1 and F2 generations, although identifying which stressor is a driving force becomes unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivy Luu
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave. W., Waterloo N2L 3G1, Ontario, Canada
| | - Heather Ikert
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave. W., Waterloo N2L 3G1, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Paul M Craig
- Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, 200 University Ave. W., Waterloo N2L 3G1, Ontario, Canada
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Rodrigues P, Cunha V, Oliva-Teles L, Ferreira M, Guimarães L. Norfluoxetine and venlafaxine in zebrafish larvae: Single and combined toxicity of two pharmaceutical products relevant for risk assessment. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 400:123171. [PMID: 32593945 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Antidepressant metabolites are found in natural and waste waters. However, investigation of their toxic effects on aquatic animals, single or in mixture with other occurring psychoactive drugs, has been neglected. Here, effects of 80hpf exposure to norfluoxetine (0.64-400 ng/L), venlafaxine (16-10000 ng/L) or their combination (3.2 ng/L +2000 ng/L, respectively) were investigated in embryos and zebrafish larvae. Mortality, embryonic malformations, sensorymotor reflexes and the expression of 34 genes involved in the toxicants mode-of-action (MoA) and metabolism were evaluated (i.e. monoamine receptors and transporters, nuclear receptors, and detoxification transporters and enzymes). Compared to controls, norfluoxetine treatments only caused depigmentation of embryos and larvae. Venlafaxine-exposed larvae exhibited depigmentation and spinal deformities, impaired sensorymotor reflexes, alterations in the expression of genes belonging to the serotonergic, noradrenergic and dopaminergic pathways, as well as nuclear receptors related to lipid and drug metabolism. The mixture elicited distinct interaction effects, depending on the level of biological organisation analysed and the neurotransmitter pathways affected; synergism (lethality), no interaction (sensorymotor reflexes), antagonism and inverse agonism (gene expression). The results call for investigation of the toxicity of pharmaceutical metabolites single and in mixture, as well as their risk assessment in approaches accounting for possible interactions with other endocrine-disrupting compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Rodrigues
- CIIMAR/CIMAR - Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - V Cunha
- CIIMAR/CIMAR - Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal
| | - L Oliva-Teles
- CIIMAR/CIMAR - Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal; Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, s/n, 4169-007, Porto, Portugal
| | - M Ferreira
- CIIMAR/CIMAR - Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal; School of Marine Studies, Faculty of Science, Technology and Environment, The University of The South Pacific, Laucala Bay Road, Suva, Fiji
| | - L Guimarães
- CIIMAR/CIMAR - Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Terminal de Cruzeiros do Porto de Leixões, Avenida General Norton de Matos, s/n, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal.
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15
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Environmental level of the antidepressant venlafaxine induces behavioral disorders through cortisol in zebrafish larvae (Danio rerio). Neurotoxicol Teratol 2020; 83:106942. [PMID: 33220437 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2020.106942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Psychoactive drugs discharged into the environment have different effects on the behavior of vertebrates. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of venlafaxine on the behavior of zebrafish, and whether melatonin could reverse the induction of venlafaxine. In this study, a series of venlafaxine concentrations (1 μg/L, 10 μg/L, 100 μg/L) was used to treat zebrafish embryos from 2 hours post-fertilization (hpf) to 5dpf. We found that venlafaxine (1 μg/L) can stimulate the growth of the head area, eye area, and body length of zebrafish. The light-dark test showed that venlafaxine (1 μg/L) could increase the activity of zebrafish larvae. What's more, venlafaxine (1 μg/L) upregulated the expression of steroid regulatory factors including steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (star), cytochrome P450 family member 11A1 (cyp11a1) and 11 β hydroxylase (cyp11b1) by cAMP-pCREB pathway, affecting the function of the steroidogenic cells, which might be involved in the increased cortisol levels in zebrafish larvae. Whereas, melatonin (230 μg/L) restored the altered locomotion behavior induced by venlafaxine and recovered the altered gene expression. Our results demonstrate that venlafaxine at levels detected in the aquatic environment impacts behavior and may compromise the adaptive responses to the environment in zebrafish larvae.
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