Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in the seawater around a typical subtropical tourist city of China and associated ecological risk

Are anticoagulant drugs ecotoxic for meiobenthic nematodes from Saudi Arabia? First data on taxon/functional diversity and computational evidences

Community-level effects of anticoagulants have little been studied in the laboratory. In the current study, the different effects of Warfarin and Tinzaparin, individually or in combination, on meiofauna were investigated for the first time using two concentrations (5 and 25 mg·l-1) of Warfarin (W1 and W2) and Tinzaparin (T1 and T2) for 30 days. The results obtained highlighted the highest tolerance of nematodes and amphipods toward the two anticoagulants tested. Moreover, nematode abundance and taxonomic diversity decreased directly after exposure to T2 and T2W1 because of the high mortality of diatom feeders and their replacement by non-selective deposit feeders (case of Tinzaparin) or omnivores-carnivores (case of Warfarin). The relative taxon/functional similarity between controls and mixtures T1W1 and T2W2 recommends that the toxicity of Tinzaparin can be attenuated by Warfarin. Finally, the computational study of Warfarin supports its potential ecotoxicity since it satisfactorily bound and interacted with GLD-3 and SDP macromolecules.

Occurrence, toxicity, impact and removal of selected non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): A review

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are among the most frequently used pharmaceuticals for human therapy, pet therapeutics, and veterinary feeds, enabling them to enter into water sources such as wastewater, soil and sediment, and seawater. The control of NSAIDs has led to the advent of the novel materials for treatment techniques. Herein, we review the occurrence, impact and toxicity of NSAIDs against aquatic microorganisms, plants and humans. Typical NSAIDs, e.g., ibuprofen, ketoprofen, diclofenac, naproxen and aspirin were detected at high concentrations in wastewater up to 2,747,000 ng L-1. NSAIDs in water could cause genotoxicity, endocrine disruption, locomotive disorders, body deformations, organs damage, and photosynthetic corruption. Considering treatment methods, among adsorbents for removal of NSAIDs from water, metal-organic frameworks (10.7-638 mg g-1) and advanced porous carbons (7.4-400 mg g-1) were the most robust. Therefore, these carbon-based adsorbents showed promise in efficiency for the treatment of NSAIDs.

Profiling of the spatiotemporal distribution, risks, and prioritization of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in coastal waters of the northern Yellow Sea, China

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) have aroused global concerns due to their ubiquitous occurrence and detrimental effects. The spatiotemporal distributions of 64 PPCPs and their synergetic ecological risks were comprehensively investigated in the seawater of Yantai Bay, and 1 H-benzotriazole (BT), ethenzamide, phenazone, propyphenazone, 4-hydroxybenzophenone and N, N'-diphenylurea were first determined in the seawater of China. Fifty-six PPCPs were detected and their concentrations were 27.5-182 ng/L, with BT contributing around 58.0%. Higher PPCP concentrations were observed in winter and spring, with the concentrations of antioxidants, analgesic/anti-inflammatory drugs and human-used antibiotics significantly higher in winter, while those of aquaculture-used antibiotics and UV filters significantly higher in summer, which was closely related with their usage patterns. Positive correlations were observed for PPCP concentrations between surface and bottom water, except summer, during which time the weak vertical exchange and varied environmental behaviors among different PPCPs resulted in the distinct compositions and concentrations. Terrestrial inputs and mariculture resulted in higher PPCP concentrations in the area located adjacent to the coast and aquaculture bases. The PPCP mixtures posed medium to high risk to crustaceans, and bisphenol A was identified as a high-risk pollutant that needs special attention.

Occurrence, distribution, and environmental risk of pharmaceutical residues in Mombasa peri-urban creeks, Kenya

The information on pharmaceutical compounds' distribution and their possible risks in marine ecosystems along the Kenya coast is limited especially in the peri-urban creeks. Hence, this study aimed to determine pharmaceutical residue levels and distribution in selected peri-urban creeks in Mombasa and Gazi bay. The target compounds were analgesic (acetaminophen), antibiotics (trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole), antiepileptic (carbamazepine), and antiretroviral (nevirapine). Pharmaceutical residues in grab surface seawater in wet and dry seasons ranged from below detection limit (BDL)-1065.6 μg L-1 and BDL-71.3 μg L-1, respectively. The concentration of the pharmaceutical residues was high in Tudor creek in the dry and wet seasons with a mean concentration of 63.3 μg L-1 and 233.1 μg L-1 respectively compared to Makupa creek (dry season, 54.2 μg L-1; wet season 16.2 μg L), and Mtwapa creek (dry season, 43.1 μg L-1; wet season, 15.0 μg L-1). Gazi Bay being used as a control site had a mean concentration of 21.3 μg L-1 and 3.1 μg L-1 during the dry season and wet season respectively. Acetaminophen and nevirapine were the most ubiquitous compounds in seawater since they were found in all seawater samples collected. Risk quotients (RQ) for invertebrates and algae based on the mean concentrations of the analytes were estimated to provide a preliminary environmental risk assessment. The results suggest that the studied acetaminophen, trimethoprim, sulfamethoxazole, and carbamazepine in seawater pose low (0.01 ≤ RQ < 0.1) to medium (0.1 ≤ RQ < 1) ecological risk whereas nevirapine poses medium to high (RQ ≥ 1) ecological risk to the ecosystems of Mombasa periurban creeks and Gazi bay. Further research, however, is encouraged on the distribution of pharmaceuticals in the marine environment and the long-term synergistic effects of mixtures of these compounds on marine biota.

Analysis of the contribution of locally derived wastewater to the occurrence of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Antarctic coastal waters

Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) are emerging pollutants detected in many locations of the world including Antarctica. The main objective of this review is to discuss the influence of the human population on the concentration, distribution and biological effects of PPCPs across the Antarctic coastal marine ecosystem. We carried out a review of the scientific articles published for PPCPs in Antarctic, supported by the information of the Antarctic stations reported by Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (CONMAP), Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR) and Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty (ATS). In addition, spatial data regarding the Antarctic continent was obtained from Quantarctica. Antarctic concentrations of PPCPs were more reflective of the treatment system used by research stations as opposed to the infrastructure built or the annual occupancy by station. The main problem is that most of the research stations lack tertiary treatment, resulting in elevated concentrations of PPCPs in effluents. Furthermore, the geographic distribution of Antarctic field stations in coastal areas allows for the release of PPCPs, directly into the sea, a practice that remains in compliance with the current Protocol. After their release, PPCPs can become incorporated into sea ice, which can then act as a chemical reservoir. In addition, there is no clarity on the effects on the local biota. Finally, we recommend regulating the entry and use of PPCPs in Antarctica given the difficulties of operating, and in some cases the complete absence of appropriate treatment systems. Further studies are needed on the fate, transport and biological effects of PPCPs on the Antarctic biota. It is recommended that research efforts be carried out in areas inhabited by humans to generate mitigation measures relative to potential adverse impacts. Tourism should be also considered in further studies due the temporal release of PPCPs.

An Overview of the Impact of Pharmaceuticals on Aquatic Microbial Communities

Pharmaceuticals are present as pollutants in several ecosystems worldwide. Despite the reduced concentrations at which they are detected, their negative impact on natural biota constitutes a global concern. The consequences of pharmaceuticals' presence in water sources and food have been evaluated with a higher detail for human health. However, although most of the pharmaceuticals detected in the environment had not been designed to act against microorganisms, it is of utmost importance to understand their impact on the environmental native microbiota. Microbial communities can suffer serious consequences from the presence of pharmaceuticals as pollutants in the environment, which may directly impact public health and ecosystem equilibrium. Among this class of pollutants, the ones that have been studied in more detail are antibiotics. This work aims to provide an overview of the impacts of different pharmaceuticals on environmental biofilms, more specifically in biofilms from aquatic ecosystems and engineered water systems. The alterations caused in the biofilm function and characteristics, as well as bacteria antimicrobial tolerance and consequently the associated risks for public health, are also reviewed. Despite the information already available on this topic, the need for additional data urges the assessment of emerging pollutants on microbial communities and the potential public health impacts.

Cosmetic Preservatives: Hazardous Micropollutants in Need of Greater Attention?

In recent years, personal care products (PCPs) have surfaced as a novel class of pollutants due to their release into wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and receiving environments by sewage effluent and biosolid-augmentation soil, which poses potential risks to non-target organisms. Among PCPs, there are preservatives that are added to cosmetics for protection against microbial spoilage. This paper presents a review of the occurrence in different environmental matrices, toxicological effects, and mechanisms of microbial degradation of four selected preservatives (triclocarban, chloroxylenol, methylisothiazolinone, and benzalkonium chloride). Due to the insufficient removal from WWTPs, cosmetic preservatives have been widely detected in aquatic environments and sewage sludge at concentrations mainly below tens of µg L^-1. These compounds are toxic to aquatic organisms, such as fish, algae, daphnids, and rotifers, as well as terrestrial organisms. A summary of the mechanisms of preservative biodegradation by micro-organisms and analysis of emerging intermediates is also provided. Formed metabolites are often characterized by lower toxicity compared to the parent compounds. Further studies are needed for an evaluation of environmental concentrations of preservatives in diverse matrices and toxicity to more species of aquatic and terrestrial organisms, and for an understanding of the mechanisms of microbial degradation. The research should focus on chloroxylenol and methylisothiazolinone because these compounds are the least understood.

Removal of Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) by Free Radicals in Advanced Oxidation Processes

As emerging pollutants, pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) have received extensive attention due to their high detection frequency (with concentrations ranging from ng/L to μg/L) and potential risk to aqueous environments and human health. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) are effective techniques for the removal of PPCPs from water environments. In AOPs, different types of free radicals (HO·, SO₄·^-, O₂·^-, etc.) are generated to decompose PPCPs into non-toxic and small-molecule compounds, finally leading to the decomposition of PPCPs. This review systematically summarizes the features of various AOPs and the removal of PPCPs by different free radicals. The operation conditions and comprehensive performance of different types of free radicals are summarized, and the reaction mechanisms are further revealed. This review will provide a quick understanding of AOPs for later researchers.

Health effects and risks associated with the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine organisms and seafood

Pharmaceuticals and their metabolites are continuously invading the marine environment due to their input from the land such as their disposal into the drains and sewers which is mostly followed by their transfer into wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Their incomplete removal in WWTPs introduces pharmaceuticals into oceans and surface water. To date, various pharmaceuticals and their metabolites have been detected in marine environment. Their occurrence in marine organisms raises concerns regarding toxic effects and development of drug resistant genes. Therefore, it is crucial to review the health effects and risks associated with the presence of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine organisms and seafood. This is an important study area which is related to the availability of seafood and its quality. Hence, this study provides a critical review of the information available in literature which relates to the occurrence and toxic effects of pharmaceuticals in marine organisms and seafood. This was initiated through conducting a literature search focussing on articles investigating the occurrence and effects of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine organisms and seafood. In general, most studies on the monitoring of pharmaceuticals and their metabolites in marine environment are conducted in well developed countries such as Europe while research in developing countries is still limited. Pharmaceuticals present in freshwater are mostly found in seawater and marine organisms. Furthermore, the toxicity caused by different pharmaceutical mixtures was observed to be more severe than that of individual compounds.

First report on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and cocaine in the coastal waters of Santa Catarina, Brazil, and its related ecological risk assessment

The worldwide occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in aquatic ecosystems is reason for public concern. These emerging micropollutants include a large and diverse group of organic compounds, with continuous input, high environmental persistence and potential threat to biota and human health. The aim of this study was to evaluate, for the first time, the occurrence of twenty-seven PPCPs of various therapeutic classes (including cocaine and its primary metabolite, benzoylecgonine), in the coastal waters of Santa Catarina, southern Brazil. Water samples were taken in November 2020, during the low tide periods, at eight sampling points located along the coast of Santa Catarina, covering its entire geographical extension. Sampling was carried out in triplicate and at different depths of the water column. Nine compounds were detected through liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS): caffeine (12.58-119.80 ng/L), diclofenac (1.34-7.92 ng/L), atenolol (1.13-2.50 ng/L), losartan (0.43-3.20 ng/L), acetaminophen (0.21-10.04 ng/L), orphenadrine (0.07-0.09 ng/L), cocaine (0.02-0.17 ng/L), benzoylecgonine (0.01-1.1 ng/L) and carbamazepine (0.02-0.27 ng/L). The highest occurrence of these compounds was detected in the northern and central coastal region of Santa Catarina, namely in Penha and Palhoça cities. Moreover, the risk assessment showed that almost compounds (atenolol, benzoylecgonine, carbamazepine, cocaine and orphenadrine) presented no ecological risk in the recorded concentrations. However, a few compounds suggest low (caffeine and diclofenac) to moderate (acetaminophen and losartan) risk taking into consideration the acute and chronic effects for the three trophic levels (algae, crustacean and fish) tested. These compounds are usually found in areas with high population density, aggravated by tourism, because of the sanitary sewage and solid waste. Although in low concentrations, the occurrence of these chemical compounds can imply deleterious effects on the environmental health of Santa Catarina coastal zone, and therefore deserve more attention by the public authorities and environmental agencies.

Electrocatalytic degradation of sulfamethylthiadiazole by GAC@Ni/Fe three-dimensional particle electrode

In this work, GAC@Ni/Fe particle electrodes were prepared and employed for the degradation of sulfamethylthiadiazole (SMT) by three-dimensional electrocatalytic technology. The effects of particle electrode bi-metal loading ratio, cell voltage, particle electrode dosage, electrode plate spacing, and SMT initial concentration on SMT removal were studied. In addition, GAC@Ni/Fe particle electrode was analyzed by the scanning electron microscope (SEM), transmission electron microscope (TEM), X-ray diffractometer (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectrometer (XPS), and Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR) to characterize which indicated that a significant amount of iron-nickel oxide was formed on the surface of GAC@Ni/Fe particle electrode. The results indicated that when the nickel-iron loading ratio is 1:1, the SMT removal effect is the best, and the removal rate can reach 90.89% within 30 min. Compared with the granular activated carbon without bimetal, the removal efficiency is increased by 37.58%. The degradation of SMT in the GAC@Ni/Fe particle three-dimensional electrode reactor is the joint result of both direct oxidation and indirect oxidation. The contribution rates of direct oxidation of anode and particle electrode and indirect oxidation of ·OH in the degradation are 32%, 27%, and 41%, respectively. Based on the intermediate detected by ultra-high liquid chromatography and the calculation of bond energy of SMT molecule by Gauss software, the degradation pathway of SMT in the GAC@Ni/Fe three-dimensional electrode reactor is proposed. This research provides a green, healthy, and effective method for removing sulfonamide micro-polluted wastewater.

Occurrence of pharmaceuticals and cocaine in the urban drainage channels located on the outskirts of the São Vicente Island (São Paulo, Brazil) and related ecological risk assessment

"Wealth by the sea and poverty away from the sea breeze" is a metaphor that mirrors what happens along the Brazilian coastal zone, namely in São Vicente Island, São Paulo, Brazil. Due to the high cost of the properties on this shore, the impoverished population started to migrate to the northern outskirts of the island (away from the tourist beaches), potentiating the emergence of poor housing conditions, namely stilt-house slums. Consequently, the urban drainage channels across these outskirts neighbourhoods are potentially contaminated by human wastes. In this context, the occurrence and preliminary ecological risk assessment of eleven pharmaceuticals of various therapeutic classes (including cocaine and its primary metabolite, benzoylecgonine) were investigated, for the first time, in five urban drainage channels whose diffuse loads flow continuously to the estuarine waters of São Vicente Island. The results showed the widespread presence of these environmental stressors in all urban channels analysed, namely losartan (7.3-2680.0 ng/L), caffeine (314.0-726.0 ng/L), acetaminophen (7.0-78.2 ng/L), atenolol (6.2-23.6 ng/L), benzoylecgonine (10.2-17.2 ng/L), furosemide (1.0-7.2 ng/L), cocaine (2.3-6.7 ng/L), carbamazepine (0.2-2.6 ng/L), diclofenac (1.1-2.5 ng/L), orphenadrine (0.2-1.1 ng/L) and chlortalidone (0.5-1.0 ng/L). The overall total estimated load of pharmaceuticals and personal care products flowing to the estuarine waters of São Vicente Island is on the order of 41.1 g/day. The ecological risk assessment revealed a great environmental concern for São Vicente Island, ranging between low (e.g. carbamazepine and cocaine) and moderate to high (e.g. caffeine, acetaminophen and losartan) threats for the aquatic biota. Therefore, initiatives promoting basic sanitation, land-use regularisation and population awareness are highly recommended.

Influence of physicochemical parameters on PPCP occurrences in the wetlands

There have been many global studies on the occurrence and distribution of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in the aquatic resources, but reports on the effects of physicochemical properties of water on their concentrations are very scarce. The amounts and removal of these contaminants in various environmental media are dependent on these physicochemical properties, which include pH, temperature, electrical conductivity, salinity, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen. Here, we reviewed the influence of these properties on determination of PPCPs. Reports showed that increase in turbidity, electrical conductivity, and salinity gives increase in concentrations of PPCPs. Also, neutral pH gives higher PPCP concentrations, while decrease in temperature and dissolved oxygen gives low concentration of PPCPs. Nevertheless, it is quite challenging to ascertain the influence of water quality parameters on the PPCP concentration, as other factors like climate change, type of water, source of pollution, persistence, and dilution factor may have great influence on the concentration of PPCPs. Therefore, routine monitoring is suggested as most water quality parameters vary because of effects of climate change.