Effects of ginsenoside Re on rat jejunal contractility

Herb-drug interactions between Panax notoginseng or its biologically active compounds and therapeutic drugs: A comprehensive pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Herbs, along with the use of herb-drug interactions (HDIs) to combat diseases, are increasing in popularity worldwide. HDIs have two effects: favorable interactions that tend to improve therapeutic outcomes and/or minimize the toxic effects of drugs, and unfavorable interactions aggravating the condition of patients. Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F.H. Chen is a medicinal plant that has long been commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine to reduce swelling, relieve pain, clear blood stasis, and stop bleeding. Numerous studies have demonstrated the existence of intricate pharmacodynamic (PD) and pharmacokinetic (PK) interactions between P. notoginseng and conventional drugs. However, these HDIs have not been systematically summarized.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

To collect the available literature on the combined applications of P. notoginseng and drugs published from 2005 to 2022 and summarize the molecular mechanisms of interactions to circumvent the potential risks of combination therapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This work was conducted by searching PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and CNKI databases. The search terms included "notoginseng", "Sanqi", "drug interaction," "synergy/synergistic", "combination/combine", "enzyme", "CYP", and "transporter".

RESULTS

P. notoginseng and its bioactive ingredients interact synergistically with numerous drugs, including anticancer, antiplatelet, and antimicrobial agents, to surmount drug resistance and side effects. This review elaborates on the molecular mechanisms of the PD processed involved. P. notoginseng shapes the PK processes of the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of other drugs by regulating metabolic enzymes and transporters, mainly cytochrome P450 enzymes and P-glycoprotein. This effect is a red flag for drugs with a narrow therapeutic window. Notably, amphipathic saponins in P. notoginseng act as auxiliary materials in drug delivery systems to enhance drug solubility and absorption and represent a new entry point for studying interactions.

CONCLUSION

This article provides a comprehensive overview of HDIs by analyzing the results of the in vivo and in vitro studies on P. notoginseng and its bioactive components. The knowledge presented here offers a scientific guideline for investigating the clinical importance of combination therapies. Physicians and patients need information on possible interactions between P. notoginseng and other drugs, and this review can help them make scientific predictions regarding the consequences of combination treatments.

A comprehensive system review of pharmacological effects and relative mechanisms of Ginsenoside Re: Recent advances and future perspectives

BACKGROUND

Ginsenoside Re (Re) belongs to protopanaxatriol saponins and exists in Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolium, Panax notoginseng, and other plants in the Araliaceae family. Re has recently become a research focus owing to its pharmacological activities and benefits to human bodies.

PURPOSE

To summarize recent findings regarding the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of Re and highlight and predict the potential therapeutic effects and systematic mechanism of Re.

METHODS

Recent studies (2011-2021) on the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of Re were retrieved from Web of Science, PubMed, Google Scholar, Scopus, and Embase up to December 2021 using relevant keywords. Network pharmacology and bioinformatics analysis were used to predict the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of Re against potential diseases.

RESULTS

Re presented a wide range of therapeutic and biological activities, including neuroprotective, cardiovascular, antidepressant, antitumorigenic, and others effects. The related pharmacological mechanisms of Re include the regulation of cholinergic and antioxidant systems in the brain; the induction of tumor cell apoptosis; the inhibition of tau protein hyperphosphorylation and oxidative stress; the activation of p38MAPK, ERK1/2, and JNK signals; the improvement of lipid metabolism; and the reduction of endothelial cell dysfunction.

CONCLUSION

This paper summarizes comprehensively the current research progress of Re and provides new research insights into the therapeutic effects and mechanisms of Re against potential diseases.

Pharmacological Properties of Ginsenoside Re

Ginsenoside Re is a protopanaxatriol-type saponin extracted from the berry, leaf, stem, flower bud, and root of Panax ginseng. In recent years, ginsenoside Re (Re) has been attracting attention as a dietary phytochemical. In this review, studies on Re were compiled by searching a combination of keywords, namely “pharmacology,” “pharmacokinetics,” and “toxicology,” in the Google Scholar, NCBI, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. The aim of this review was to provide an exhaustive overview of the pharmacological activities, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of Re, focusing on clinical evidence that has shown effectiveness in specific diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, nervous system diseases, inflammation, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Re is also known to eliminate virus, enhance the immune response, improve osteoporosis, improve skin barrier function, enhance intracellular anti-oxidant actions, regulate cholesterol metabolism, alleviate allergic responses, increase sperm motility, reduce erectile dysfunction, promote cyclic growth of hair follicles, and reduce gastrointestinal motility dysfunction. Furthermore, this review provides data on pharmacokinetic parameters and toxicological factors to examine the safety profile of Re. Such data will provide a theoretical basis and reference for Re-related studies and future applications.

Panax quinquefolium saponins protect against cisplatin evoked intestinal injury via ROS-mediated multiple mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Cisplatin is one of the most common chemotherapeutic drugs. Cisplatin-induced toxicity gives rise to gastrointestinal cell damage, subsequent diarrhea and vomiting, leading to the discontinuation of its clinical application in long-term cancer chemotherapy. Panax quinquefolium L., also known as American ginseng, has many pharmacological activities such as improving immunity, anti-tumor, anti-radiation and blood sugar lowering.

PURPOSE

Previously, our laboratory reported that American ginseng berry extract could alleviate chemotherapeutic agents-induced renal damage caused by cisplatin. Hence, this study further explored the protective effect of P. quinquefolium saponins (PQS) on cisplatin-induced intestinal injury in mice and the possible molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

Biochemical markers, levels of inflammatory factors, histopathological staining and western blotting were used to analyze intestinal injury based on various molecular mechanisms.

RESULTS

We demonstrated the destruction of the intestinal barrier caused by cisplatin exposure by detecting the activity of diamine oxidase (DAO) and the expression of tight junction proteins zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin. Meanwhile, cisplatin exposure changed SOD and MDA levels in the small intestine, causing oxidative damage to the intestinal mucosa. The inflammation associated-intestinal damage was further explored by the measurement of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and analysis of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) inflammatory pathway protein expression. Moreover, apoptotic cells labeled with TUNEL staining-positive cells and activated caspase family proteins suggest that cisplatin induces intestinal apoptosis. Interestingly, PQS pretreatment significantly reversed these situations.

CONCLUSION

These evidences clearly suggest that PQS can alleviate cisplatin-induced intestinal damage by inhibiting oxidative stress, reducing the occurrence of inflammation and apoptosis, and improving intestinal barrier function.

Anti-Inflammatory Response and Muscarinic Cholinergic Regulation during the Laxative Effect of Asparagus cochinchinensis in Loperamide-Induced Constipation of SD Rats

Several types of saponins and herbal plants containing saponins have been reported to have anti-inflammatory or laxative activities. To verify the therapeutic effects of saponin-enriched extracts of Asparagus cochinchinensis (SPA) on the anti-inflammatory response and on the cholinergic regulation in the gastrointestinal system, an alteration on the constipation phenotypes, on the inflammatory responses, and on the muscarinic cholinergic regulation were investigated in the transverse colons of Sprague Dawley (SD) rats with loperamide (Lop)-induced constipation after the treatment of SPA. Significant increases were observed on the total number of stools, the gastrointestinal transit, the thickness of the mucosal layer, the flat luminal surface, the number of paneth cells, and the lipid droplets in the Lop + SPA-treated group as compared to the Lop + Vehicle-treated group. SPA treatment induced the recovery of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β) and IL-6), inflammatory mediators (NF-κB and iNOS), the total number of infiltered mast cells, and mucin secretion. Also, some similar improvements were observed on the levels of acetylcholine esterase (AChE) activity and on the phosphorylation of myosin light chains (MLC) as well as the expression of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors M2/M3 (mAChR M2/M3) and their mediators. The results presented herein provide the first strong evidence that SPA stimulates anti-inflammatory responses and the muscarinic cholinergic regulation when exerting its laxative effects in the chronic constipation of Lop-induced models.

Berberine Depresses Contraction of Smooth Muscle via Inhibiting Myosin Light-chain Kinase

BACKGROUND

Berberine is a natural isoquinoline alkaloid possessing various pharmacological effects, particularly apparent in the treatment of diarrhea, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Smooth muscle myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK) plays a crucial role in the smooth muscle relaxation-contraction events, and it is well known that berberine can effectively depress the contraction of smooth muscle. Hence, whether berberine could inhibit MLCK and then depress the smooth muscle contractility might be researched.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of berberine on MLCK. Based on this, the contractility of gastro-intestine, catalysis activity of MLCK, and molecular docking are going to be evaluated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiment of smooth muscle contraction was directly monitored the contractions of the isolated gastrointestine by frequency and amplitude at different concentration of berberine. The effects of berberine on MLCK were measured in the presence of Ca2+-calmodulin, using the activities of 20 kDa myosin light chain (MLC20) phosphorylation, and myosin Mg2+-ATPase induced by MLCK. The docking study was conducted with expert software in the meantime.

RESULTS

The phosphorylation of myosin and the Mg2+-ATPase activity is reduced in the presence of berberine. Moreover, berberine could inhibit the contractibility of isolated gastric intestine smooth muscle. Berberine could bind to the ATP binding site of MLCK through hydrophobic effect and hydrogen bonding according to the docking study.

CONCLUSION

The present work gives a deep insight into the molecular mechanism for the treatment of diarrhea with berberine, i.e., berberine could suppress the contractility of smooth muscle through binding to MLCK and depressing the catalysis activity of MLCK.

SUMMARY

Berberine significantly reduced the amplitude of contraction in isolated duodenum and gastric strips in ratsBerberine inhibited the phosphorylated extents of MLC20 and Mg2+-ATPase activity of phosphorylated myosin induced by MLCKBerberine binds to the ATP binding site of MLCK by hydrophobic effect and hydrogen bondingBerberine may modulate contraction of smooth muscle by inhibiting MLCK. Abbreviations used: MLCK: Myosin light chain kinase; MLC20: 20 KDa regulating myosin light chain; CaM: Calmodulin.

Ameliorative effects of atractylodin on intestinal inflammation and co-occurring dysmotility in both constipation and diarrhea prominent rats

Intestinal disorders often co-occur with inflammation and dysmotility. However, drugs which simultaneously improve intestinal inflammation and co-occurring dysmotility are rarely reported. Atractylodin, a widely used herbal medicine, is used to treat digestive disorders. The present study was designed to characterize the effects of atractylodin on amelioration of both jejunal inflammation and the co-occurring dysmotility in both constipation-prominent (CP) and diarrhea-prominent (DP) rats. The results indicated that atractylodin reduced proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in the plasma and inhibited the expression of inflammatory mediators iNOS and NF-kappa B in jejunal segments in both CP and DP rats. The results indicated that atractylodin exerted stimulatory effects and inhibitory effects on the contractility of jejunal segments isolated from CP and DP rats respectively, showing a contractile-state-dependent regulation. Atractylodin-induced contractile-state-dependent regulation was also observed by using rat jejunal segments in low and high contractile states respectively (5 pairs of low/high contractile states). Atractylodin up-regulated the decreased phosphorylation of 20 kDa myosin light chain, protein contents of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK), and MLCK mRNA expression in jejunal segments of CP rats and down-regulated those increased parameters in DP rats. Taken together, atractylodin alleviated rat jejunal inflammation and exerted contractile-state-dependent regulation on the contractility of jejunal segments isolated from CP and DP rats respectively, suggesting the potential clinical implication for ameliorating intestinal inflammation and co-occurring dysmotility.

Ginsenoside Re inhibits pacemaker potentials via adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channels and the cyclic guanosine monophosphate/nitric oxide-dependent pathway in cultured interstitial cells of Cajal from mouse small intestine

Background

Ginseng belongs to the genus Panax. Its main active ingredients are the ginsenosides. Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) are the pacemaker cells of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. To understand the effects of ginsenoside Re (GRe) on GI motility, the authors investigated its effects on the pacemaker activity of ICCs of the murine small intestine.

Methods

Interstitial cells of Cajal were dissociated from mouse small intestines by enzymatic digestion. The whole-cell patch clamp configuration was used to record pacemaker potentials in cultured ICCs. Changes in cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) content induced by GRe were investigated.

Results

Ginsenoside Re (20–40μM) decreased the amplitude and frequency of ICC pacemaker activity in a concentration-dependent manner. This action was blocked by guanosine 5′-[β-thio]diphosphate [a guanosine-5'-triphosphate (GTP)-binding protein inhibitor] and by glibenclamide [an adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive K⁺ channel blocker]. To study the GRe-induced signaling pathway in ICCs, the effects of 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (a guanylate cyclase inhibitor) and RP-8-CPT-cGMPS (a protein kinase G inhibitor) were examined. Both inhibitors blocked the inhibitory effect of GRe on ICC pacemaker activity. L-NG-nitroarginine methyl ester (100μM), which is a nonselective nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor, blocked the effects of GRe on ICC pacemaker activity and GRe-stimulated cGMP production in ICCs.

Conclusion

In cultured murine ICCs, GRe inhibits the pacemaker activity of ICCs via the ATP-sensitive potassium (K⁺) channel and the cGMP/NO-dependent pathway. Ginsenoside Re may be a basis for developing novel spasmolytic agents to prevent or alleviate GI motility dysfunction.