Sweroside ameliorated carbon tetrachloride (CCl4)-induced liver fibrosis through FXR-miR-29a signaling pathway

Farnesoid X receptor: From Structure to Function and Its Pharmacology in Liver Fibrosis

The farnesoid X receptor (FXR), a ligand-activated transcription factor, plays a crucial role in regulating bile acid metabolism within the enterohepatic circulation. Beyond its involvement in metabolic disorders and immune imbalances affecting various tissues, FXR is implicated in microbiota modulation, gut-to-brain communication, and liver disease. The liver, as a pivotal metabolic and detoxification organ, is susceptible to damage from factors such as alcohol, viruses, drugs, and high-fat diets. Chronic or recurrent liver injury can culminate in liver fibrosis, which, if left untreated, may progress to cirrhosis and even liver cancer, posing significant health risks. However, therapeutic options for liver fibrosis remain limited in terms of FDA-approved drugs. Recent insights into the structure of FXR, coupled with animal and clinical investigations, have shed light on its potential pharmacological role in hepatic fibrosis. Progress has been achieved in both fundamental research and clinical applications. This review critically examines recent advancements in FXR research, highlighting challenges and potential mechanisms underlying its role in liver fibrosis treatment.

Angelica dahurica extract and its effective component bergapten alleviated hepatic fibrosis by activating FXR signaling pathway

Angelica dahurica (A. dahurica) has a wide range of pharmacological effects, including analgesic, anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects. In this study, we investigated the effect of A. dahurica extract (AD) and its effective component bergapten (BG) on hepatic fibrosis and potential mechanisms. Hepatic fibrosis was induced by intraperitoneal injection with carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) for 1 week, and mice were administrated with AD or BG by gavage for 1 week before CCl4 injection. Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) were stimulated by transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and cultured with AD, BG, GW4064 (FXR agonist) or Guggulsterone (FXR inhibitor). In CCl4-induced mice, AD significantly decreased serum aminotransferase, reduced excess accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM), inhibited caspase-1 and IL-1β, and increased FXR expressions. In activated HSCs, AD suppressed the expressions of α-SMA, collagen I, and TIMP-1/MMP-13 ratio and inflammatory factors, functioning as FXR agonist. In CCl4-induced mice, BG significantly improved serum transaminase and histopathological changes, reduced ECM excessive deposition, inflammatory response, and activated FXR expression. BG increased FXR expression and inhibited α-SMA and IL-1β expressions in activated HSCs, functioning as GW4064. FXR deficiency significantly attenuated the decreasing effect of BG on α-SMA and IL-1β expressions in LX-2 cells. In conclusion, AD could regulate hepatic fibrosis by regulating ECM excessive deposition and inflammation. Activating FXR signaling by BG might be the potential mechanism of AD against hepatic fibrosis.

Sweroside: An iridoid glycoside of potential neuroprotective, antidiabetic, and antioxidant activities supported by molecular docking

Oxidative stress can be a series burden on human health and may lead to many chronic diseases such as diabetes and neurological disorders. The use of natural products to scavenge the reactive oxygen species has attracted the attention of many researchers, to safely manage these conditions with fewer side effects, in available and cost-effective ways. The current study aimed at the isolation and structure elucidation of sweroside from Schenkia spicata (Gentianaceae) and the evaluation of its antioxidant, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, and enzyme inhibitory potential via in vitro and in silico studies. The antioxidant potential was evaluated by a variety of assays as ABTS, CUPRAC and FRAP, showing values of 0.34 ± 0.08, 21.14 ± 0.43, and 12.32 ± 0.20 mg TE/g, respectively, while demonstrating 0.75 ± 0.03 mmol TE/g for phosphomolybdenum (PBD) assay. Acetylcholinestrase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) and tyrosinase inhibitory activities were used to evaluate the neuroprotective effect, while the antidiabetic potential was evaluated by measuring α-amylase and glucosidase inhibitory activities. Results revealed that sweroside showed antioxidant and inhibitory effects on the enzymes tested with the exception of AChE. It demonstrated good tyrosinase inhibitory ability with 55.06 ± 1.85 mg Kojic acid equivalent /g. Regarding the antidiabetic ability, the compound displayed both amylase and glucosidase (0.10 ± 0.01 and 1.54 ± 0.01 mmol Acarbose equivalent/g, respectively) inhibitory activities. Molecular docking studies of sweroside on the active sites of the aforementioned enzymes in addition to NADPH oxidase were performed using Discovery Studio 4.1 software. Results revealed good binding affinities of sweroside to these enzymes mainly through hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions. Sweroside can be an important antioxidant and enzyme inhibitory supplement, yet further in vivo and clinical studies are required.

Sweroside plays a role in mitigating high glucose-induced damage in human renal tubular epithelial HK-2 cells by regulating the SIRT1/NF-κB signaling pathway

Sweroside is a natural monoterpene derived from Swertia pseudochinensis Hara. Recently, studies have shown that sweroside exhibits a variety of biological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and hypoglycemic effects. However, its role and mechanisms in high glucose (HG)-induced renal injury remain unclear. Herein, we established a renal injury model in vitro by inducing human renal tubular epithelial cell (HK-2 cells) injury by HG. Then, the effects of sweroside on HK-2 cell activity, inflammation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) were observed. As a result, sweroside treatment ameliorated the viability, inhibited the secretion of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, and VCAM-1), reduced the generation of ROS, and inhibited EMT in HK-2 cells. Moreover, the protein expression of SIRT1 was increased and the acetylation of p65 NF-kB was decreased in HK-2 cells with sweroside treatment. More importantly, EX527, an inhibitor of SIRT1, that inactivated SIRT1, abolished the improvement effects of sweroside on HK-2 cells. Our findings suggested that sweroside may mitigate HG-caused injury in HK-2 cells by promoting SIRT1-mediated deacetylation of p65 NF-kB.

Liver Fibrosis Resolution: From Molecular Mechanisms to Therapeutic Opportunities

The liver is a critical system for metabolism in human beings, which plays an essential role in an abundance of physiological processes and is vulnerable to endogenous or exogenous injuries. After the damage to the liver, a type of aberrant wound healing response known as liver fibrosis may happen, which can result in an excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) and then cause cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), seriously endangering human health and causing a great economic burden. However, few effective anti-fibrotic medications are clinically available to treat liver fibrosis. The most efficient approach to liver fibrosis prevention and treatment currently is to eliminate its causes, but this approach's efficiency is too slow, or some causes cannot be fully eliminated, which causes liver fibrosis to worsen. In cases of advanced fibrosis, the only available treatment is liver transplantation. Therefore, new treatments or therapeutic agents need to be explored to stop the further development of early liver fibrosis or to reverse the fibrosis process to achieve liver fibrosis resolution. Understanding the mechanisms that lead to the development of liver fibrosis is necessary to find new therapeutic targets and drugs. The complex process of liver fibrosis is regulated by a variety of cells and cytokines, among which hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are the essential cells, and their continued activation will lead to further progression of liver fibrosis. It has been found that inhibiting HSC activation, or inducing apoptosis, and inactivating activated hepatic stellate cells (aHSCs) can reverse fibrosis and thus achieve liver fibrosis regression. Hence, this review will concentrate on how HSCs become activated during liver fibrosis, including intercellular interactions and related signaling pathways, as well as targeting HSCs or liver fibrosis signaling pathways to achieve the resolution of liver fibrosis. Finally, new therapeutic compounds targeting liver fibrosis are summarized to provide more options for the therapy of liver fibrosis.

Small-molecule natural plants for reversing liver fibrosis based on modulation of hepatic stellate cells activation: An update

BACKGROUND

Liver fibrosis (LF) is a trauma repair process carried out by the liver in response to various acute and chronic liver injuries. Its primary pathological characteristics are excessive proliferation and improper dismissal of the extracellular matrix, and if left untreated, it will progress into cirrhosis, liver cancer, and other diseases. Hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation is intimately associated to the onset of LF, and it is anticipated that addressing HSCs proliferation can reverse LF. Plant-based small-molecule medications have anti-LF properties, and their mechanisms of action involve suppression of extracellular matrix abnormally accumulating as well as anti-inflammation and anti-oxidative stress. New targeting HSC agents will therefore be needed to provide a potential curative response.

PURPOSE

The most recent HSC routes and small molecule natural plants that target HSC described domestically and internationally in recent years were examined in this review.

METHODS

The data was looked up using resources including ScienceDirect, CNKI, Web of Science, and PubMed. Keyword searches for information on hepatic stellate cells included "liver fibrosis", "natural plant", "hepatic stellate cells", "adverse reaction", "toxicity", etc. RESULTS: We discovered that plant monomers can target and control various pathways to prevent the activation and proliferation of HSC and promote the apoptosis of HSC in order to achieve the anti-LF effect in this work by compiling the plant monomers that influence many common pathways of HSC in recent years. It demonstrates the wide-ranging potential of plant monomers targeting different routes to combat LF, with a view to supplying new concepts and new strategies for natural plant therapy of LF as well as research and development of novel pharmaceuticals. The investigation of kaempferol, physalin B, and other plant monomers additionally motivated researchers to focus on the structure-activity link between the main chemicals and LF.

CONCLUSION

The creation of novel pharmaceuticals can benefit greatly from the use of natural components. They are often harmless for people, non-target creatures, and the environment because they are found in nature, and they can be employed as the starting chemicals for the creation of novel medications. Natural plants are valuable resources for creating new medications with fresh action targets because they feature original and distinctive action mechanisms.

Dipsacus and Scabiosa Species-The Source of Specialized Metabolites with High Biological Relevance: A Review

The genera Dipsacus L. and Scabiosa L. of the Caprifoliaceae family are widely distributed in Europe, Asia, and Africa. This work reviews the available literature on the phytochemical profiles, ethnomedicinal uses, and biological activities of the most popular species. These plants are rich sources of many valuable specialized metabolites with beneficial medicinal properties, such as triterpenoid derivatives, iridoids, phenolic acids, and flavonoids. They are also sources of essential oils. The genus Dipsacus has been used for centuries in Chinese and Korean folk medicines to treat bone (osteoporosis) and joint problems (rheumatic arthritis). The Korean Herbal Pharmacopoeia and Chinese Pharmacopoeia include Dipsaci radix, the dried roots of D. asperoides C.Y.Cheng & T.M.Ai. In addition, S. comosa Fisch. ex Roem & Schult. and S. tschiliiensis Grunning are used in traditional Mongolian medicine to treat liver diseases. The current scientific literature data indicate that these plants and their constituents have various biological properties, including inter alia antiarthritic, anti-neurodegenerative, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities; they have also been found to strengthen tendon and bone tissue and protect the liver, heart, and kidney. The essential oils possess antibacterial, antifungal, and insecticidal properties. This paper reviews the key biological values of Dipsacus and Scabiosa species, as identified by in vitro and in vivo studies, and presents their potential pharmacological applications.

The linkage of gut microbiota and the property theory of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM): Cold-natured and sweet-flavored TCMs as an example

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The property theory of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is a unique medical theory based on an extensive clinical practice for thousands of years, which guides TCM doctors choosing proper medicines to treat specific diseases. The nature and flavor of TCM are a high generalization of drug's characteristics according to the property theory. Despite intensive investigations, the modern interpretation of TCM property theory still confronts several challenges, which greatly hampers the elucidation of TCM's mechanisms as well as its application. Compelling evidence has proved that gut microbiota may be a potential indicator for TCM's efficacy and mechanism. Nevertheless, at present, the relationship between the gut microbiota and the nature and flavor of TCM has not been fully elucidated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To fill the gap in this field, we developed a comprehensive study to investigate the relationship between gut microbial community and TCM's property.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We searched "PubMed" and "China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI)" with the key word "gut microbiota", and screened the published articles related to TCM. In this review, we mainly applied cold-natured and sweet-flavored TCMs as an example to explore the modulation of cold-natured and sweet-flavored TCMs on gut microbiota, and identify the potential relationship between the alterations of gut microbiota and TCM's efficacy.

RESULTS

We found cold-natured and sweet-flavored TCMs possess several pharmacological activities and generally enrich beneficial bacteria like Akkermansia, Bacteroides, Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium, which is in good accordance with their pharmacological effects. Simultaneously, these TCMs reduce the relative abundance of some harmful bacteria belonging to Firmicutes (Streptpcoccus, Enterococcus, Turicibacter, Anaerostipes and Oscillibacter) and Proteobacteria (Helicobacter, Enterobacter, Sutterella, Klebsiella, Desulfovibrio, Escherichia coli and Campylobacter jejuni). These results indicate that there are some intrinsic correlations between gut microbiota and the property of TCM, and gut microbiota may serve as a potential indicator to reflect the property of TCM.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot but comprehensive review provides an interesting proposal that the ancient theory of TCM property may be interpreted by the modern biological findings in gut microbiome.

Discovery of the material basis of Jiuwei Xifeng granules using pharmaco-chemistry and pharmacokinetics

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Jiuwei Xifeng granules (JWXF) is primarily used for the treatment of Tourette syndrome (TS) with kidney-Yin deficiency and internal stirring of liver wind. However, few studies have focused on this issue.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to clarify chemical composition of JWXF using in vitro and in vivo pharmaco-chemistry and to provide a basis for the clinical use of JWXF using a strategy of pharmacokinetics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, the chemical constituents and in vivo metabolism of JWXF were evaluated using high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS), and the time-dependent processes of the three main components in rats were detected using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC-QQQ-MS/MS).

RESULTS

A total of 75 constituents were identified, including 22 alkaloids, 21 terpenes, 15 organic acids and their derivatives, and 17 other compounds. After administration, 12 compounds were identified in rat plasma, including 11 prototypes and one metabolite. Pharmacokinetic analysis showed that the effects of gentiopicroside, gastrodin, and sweroside in rats were dose-dependent when the dose of JWXF was 1-4 g/kg. They were rapidly absorbed and did not accumulate in the plasma after 7-day continuous intragastric administration.

CONCLUSIONS

JWXF consists of 75 components, including alkaloids, terpenes, and organic acids. The three main compounds, gastrodin, gentiopicroside, and sweroside, undergo rapid absorption, elimination, and dose-dependent pharmacokinetics.

Ameliorative Effect of Rice Husk Methanol Extract on Liver and Kidney Toxicities Induced by Subchronic Codeine Administration

Background and Objective. Rice husk remains a key by-product of rice milling generated in significant amount. Accumulated evidence indicates that rice husk contains numerous bioactive compounds; however, its application is limited. This study was designed to introduce an in vivo application of rice husk extract, against opioid-induced liver and kidney injuries. Codeine was considered a psychotic inducer in this study due to its global alarming misuse recently. The hepatorenal ameliorative proclivity of rice husk extract against codeine-induced toxicity on the liver and kidney in male albino Wistar rats was examined. To this effect, thirty-six (36) albino Wistar rats of weight 100-110 g were utilized and weight-matched animals placed in 6 groups of 6 rats each. After 30 days of the combined administration of codeine and the rice husk extract, the experimental animals were assayed for basic liver and renal markers such as AST, ALP, ALT, total protein, albumin, conjugated and total bilirubin, urea, creatinine, and electrolytes (sodium, potassium, chloride, and bicarbonate). Rice husks were collected from a local rice mill, and the extraction was done with methanol. Findings. Rice husk extract (RHE) significantly ameliorated the recorded hepatic damage. More so, the extract showed a significant action on the renal markers as well. A histopathology examination of the liver and kidney tissues revealed that RHE showed a hepatorenal ameliorative potential in a dose-dependent manner. Conclusion. Phytonutrient from RH possesses a healing ability against opioid-induced hepatorenal toxicity. Thus, RH is safe for human and may be adopted to obviate and manage codeine-induced hepatorenal damage or injury. Significance and Novelty. Data on the application of RHE as a phytonutrient to combat liver and kidney injuries were demonstrated. Future studies should evaluate its potential on other organs.

Plant-derived bioactive compounds regulate the NLRP3 inflammasome to treat NAFLD

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a liver disorder characterized by abnormal accumulation of hepatic fat and inflammatory response with complex pathogenesis. Over activation of the pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome triggers the secretion of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, induces pyroptosis, and promotes the release of a large number of pro-inflammatory proteins. All of which contribute to the development of NAFLD. There is a great deal of evidence indicating that plant-derived active ingredients are effective and safe for NAFLD management. This review aims to summarize the research progress of 31 active plant-derived components (terpenoids, flavonoids, alkaloids, and phenols) that alleviate lipid deposition, inflammation, and pyroptosis by acting on the NLRP3 inflammasome studied in both in vitro and in vivo NAFLD models. These studies confirmed that the NLRP3 inflammasome and its related genes play a key role in NAFLD amelioration, providing a starting point for further study on the correlation of plant-derived compounds treatment with the NLRP3 inflammasome and NAFLD.

Metabolomic comparison between natural Huaier and artificial cultured Huaier

Vanderbylia robiniophila (Murrill) B.K. (Huaier) is a kind of higher fungal fruiting body parasitic on the trunk of Sophora japonica and Robinia pseudoacacia L.. As a traditional Chinese medicine with a history of more than 1600 years, Huaier has attracted wide attention for its excellent anticancer activity. A systematic study on the metabolome differences between natural Huaier and artificial cultured Huaier was conducted using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in this study. Principal component analysis and orthogonal projection on latent structure-discriminant analysis results showed that cultured Huaier evidently separated and individually separated from natural Huaier, indicating metabolome difference between natural Huaier and cultured Huaier. Hierarchical clustering analysis was further performed to cluster the differential metabolites and samples based on their metabolic similarity. The higher content of amino acids, alkaloids and terpenoids in natural Huaier makes it an excellent choice as a traditional Chinese medicine for anti-cancer or nutritional supplementation. The results of the Bel-7402 and A549 cells cytotoxicity test showed that the anticancer activity of natural Huaier was better than that of cultured Huaier. This may be due to the difference in chemical composition, which makes the anticancer activity of natural and cultured Huaier different.

Hepatoprotective effect of Saccharomyces Cervisciae Cell Wall Extract against thioacetamide-induced liver fibrosis in rats

Fibrosis represents a common outcome of almost all chronic liver diseases and leads to an impairment of liver function that requires medical intervention. The current study aimed to evaluate the potential anti-fibrotic effect of Saccharomyces cervisciae cell wall extract (SCCWE) against thioacetamide (TAA)-induced liver fibrosis in rats (200mg/kg b.w. i.p. twice weekly for 6 weeks) using Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) as a reference anti-fibrotic product. SCCWE at two doses (50 and 100 mg/kg) significantly ameliorated the rise in serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), gamma glutamide transferase (GGT) activities, total bilirubin and direct bilirubin, increased total protein and albumin. SCCWE significantly reduced glutathione depletion (GSH), Nitric oxide (NOx) and malondialdehyde (MDA), thioredoxin (Trx) contents and elevated nuclear factor erythroid 2–related factor 2 (Nrf-2) content. Its anti-inflammatory effects were confirmed by observing a decrease in nuclear factor-κB (NF- κβ), interleukin-1b (IL-1β) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) content. The anti-fibrotic effects of SCCWE were explored by assessing fibrosis related markers as it significantly reduced transform growth factor-β (TGF-β) and autotaxin (ATX) contents. Administration of SCCWE significantly decreased matrix metalloproteinase-3 and 9 (MMP-3 and -9). Furthermore, it also decreased alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and caspase-3 as assessed immunohistochemically those results were similar to that of the standard drug UDCA. This study shows that SCCWE protects against TAA-induced liver fibrosis in rats, through attenuating oxidative stress, and inflammation, ameliorating MMPs, combating apoptosis and thereby fibrotic biomarkers in addition to improving histopathological changes.

Ameliorative effects of Qingganjiuwei powder, a traditional Mongolian medicine, against CCl4-induced liver fibrosis in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Qingganjiuwei powder (QGJWS) is a well-known traditional drug containing nine kinds of medicinal materials. This drug is commonly used in the Inner Mongolia region and exerts remarkable clinical effects on hepatic protection.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate whether QGJWS inhibits liver fibrosis in rats and to reveal its potential mechanisms.

METHODS

Liver fibrosis model was induced by CCl₄ for 8 weeks in SD rats. Next, rats were intragastrically administered quantum satis doses of QGJWS (0.525, 1.575, 4.725 g/kg per day) or Silymarin (SIL; 120 mg/kg per day) for 8 weeks. Afterwards, the rats were sacrificed, and serum aminotransferase (ALT and AST) levels, histopathological changes as well as the mRNA and protein expression of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2), MMP9, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase1 (TIMP1), collagen type Ⅰ(COL1), α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), combined with phosphorylation levels of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), C-Jun amino-terminal kinases (JNKs) and stress-activated protein kinase-2 (p38) protein in liver tissues were measured in each groups, respectively.

RESULTS

The symptoms and signs of the model rats were consistent with the diagnostic criteria of liver fibrosis. By contrast, treatment with QGJWS clearly improved the general condition of rats. Also, the morphology and structure of liver can be ameliorated, there are fewer hepatocyte necrosis and lymphocytic infiltration and pseudolobuli in QGJWS treatment groups as demonstrated by histopathological analysis, thus helping bring about lower METAVIR scores. QGJWS administration also dramatically decreased serum ALT and AST levels. Further immunohistochemistry, western blotting and Real-Time PCR analysis revealed that QGJWS significantly enhanced the mRNA and protein expression of MMP2, MMP9, and downregulated the expression levels of COL1, TIMP1 and α-SMA. Furthermore, QGJWS reduced the activities of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) pathway in liver by inhibited the phosphorylation of ERK, JNKs and p38 proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

QGJWS offers notable protection against CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis in rats, which may be due to its ability to inhibited the MAPKs signaling pathway.

Sweroside Prevents Non-Alcoholic Steatohepatitis by Suppressing Activation of the NLRP3 Inflammasome

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), a type of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, is characterized as steatosis and inflammation in the liver. NLRP3 inflammasome activation is associated with NASH pathology. We hypothesized that suppressing the NLRP3 inflammasome could be effective in preventing NASH. We searched substances that could inhibit the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome and identified sweroside as an NLRP3 inhibitor. We investigated whether sweroside can be applied to prevent the pathological symptoms associated with NASH in a methionine–choline-deficient (MCD) diet-induced NASH mouse model. The activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome was determined by detecting the production of caspase-1 and IL-1β from pro-caspase-1 and pro-IL-1β in primary mouse macrophages and mouse liver. In a NASH model, mice were fed an MCD diet for two weeks with daily intraperitoneal injections of sweroside. Sweroside effectively inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation in primary macrophages as shown by a decrease in IL-1β and caspase-1 production. In a MCD diet-induced NASH mouse model, intraperitoneal injection of sweroside significantly reduced serum aspartate transaminase and alanine transaminase levels, hepatic immune cell infiltration, hepatic triglyceride accumulation, and liver fibrosis. The improvement of NASH symptoms by sweroside was accompanied with its inhibitory effects on the hepatic NLRP3 inflammasome as hepatic IL-1β and caspase-1 were decreased. Furthermore, sweroside blocked de novo synthesis of mitochondrial DNA in the liver, contributing to suppression of the NLRP3 inflammasome. These results suggest that targeting the NLRP3 inflammasome with sweroside could be beneficially employed to improve NASH symptoms.