Targeting Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase (ALK) in Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) with the Second-Generation ALK Inhibitor Ceritinib

Rhabdomyosarcoma: Current Therapy, Challenges, and Future Approaches to Treatment Strategies

Rhabdomyosarcoma is a rare cancer arising in skeletal muscle that typically impacts children and young adults. It is a worldwide challenge in child health as treatment outcomes for metastatic and recurrent disease still pose a major concern for both basic and clinical scientists. The treatment strategies for rhabdomyosarcoma include multi-agent chemotherapies after surgical resection with or without ionization radiotherapy. In this comprehensive review, we first provide a detailed clinical understanding of rhabdomyosarcoma including its classification and subtypes, diagnosis, and treatment strategies. Later, we focus on chemotherapy strategies for this childhood sarcoma and discuss the impact of three mechanisms that are involved in the chemotherapy response including apoptosis, macro-autophagy, and the unfolded protein response. Finally, we discuss in vivo mouse and zebrafish models and in vitro three-dimensional bioengineering models of rhabdomyosarcoma to screen future therapeutic approaches and promote muscle regeneration.

Epithelioid and spindle rhabdomyosarcoma with TFCP2 rearrangement in abdominal wall: a distinctive entity with poor prognosis

BACKGROUND

Epithelioid and spindle rhabdomyosarcoma (ES-RMS) with TFCP2 rearrangement is a recently discovered rare variant of rhabdomyosarcoma composed of epithelioid and spindle cells, because it shows extraordinarily adverse prognosis and is easily misdiagnosed as other epithelioid or spindle cell tumors.

METHODS

A rare case of ES-RMS with TFCP2 rearrangement was presented and English literatures in Pubmed online up to 01 July 2022 were gathered by two authors for a systematic review according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria.

CASE PRESENTATION/RESULTS

We report a case of ES-RMS in an early 30s-years-old female, the neoplastic cells are remarkably immunoreactive with CK(AE1/AE3), and partially with ALK protein. Unexpectedly, the tumor shows TFCP2 rearrangement with coexistence of increased copy numbers of EWSR1 and ROS1 gene and MET gene mutation. Besides, Next-generation sequencing for genetic mutational profiling revealed frequent MET exon14 mutations in chromosome 7, most of which are C > T nonsynonymous SNV, and exon42 of ROS1 in chromosome 6 showed frequent G > T mutation up to 57.54%. In addition, neither MyoD1 mutation nor gene fusions were detected. Moreover, the patient shows high tumor mutational burden (TMB) up to 14.11 counts/Mb. Finally, as many cases of ES-RMS including our case had local progression or metastasis, we find, similar to epithelioid rhabdomyosarcoma (median survival time is 10 month), ES-RMS shows a more aggressive behavior and adverse prognosis (median survival time is 17 month) than spindle cell/sclerosing rhabdomyosarcoma (median survival time is 65 month) according previous studies.

CONCLUSIONS

ES-RMS with TFCP2 rearrangement is a rare malignant tumor and easily confused with other epithelioid or spindle cell tumors, it may harbor additional gene alteration in addition to TFCP2 rearrangement, such as MET mutation, increased copy numbers of EWSR1 and ROS1 gene, high TMB. Most importantly, it may show very poor outcome with extensive metastasis.

Lessons Learned: Utilization of a Reference Laboratory for Targeted Sequencing of Pediatric Tumors at a Single Institution

Our study aims to report the prevalence of potentially actionable oncogenic variants in a sample of pediatric tumors from a single institution using a reference laboratory for tumor profiling. We investigated genomic alterations and immunotherapy biomarkers such a tumor mutation burden, microsatellite instability, and programmed death-ligand 1. Patients treated in the Cook Children's Health Care System who had tumor profiling performed by Foundation Medicine between January 1, 2013, and May 1, 2019, were included. Demographic variables, results of tumor profiling, and subsequent use of targeted therapies were captured. Eighty-one patients were in our final data set; patients had diagnoses of central nervous system tumors (n=5), leukemia and lymphoma (n=4), neuroblastoma (n=32), and other solid tumors (n=40). One or more genomic alterations were identified in 68 (84%) of patients, 34 of which had potential targeted therapies available. In all, 44/51 patients tested for tumor mutation burden had low tumor burden, and the rest had intermediate burden. All 41 patients tested for microsatellite instability status were microsatellite stable. Six of 34 patients tested for programmed death-ligand 1 status were positive. Twelve patients received targeted therapy. This study highlights a subset of pediatric tumors harboring targetable genetic alterations and describes the use of a reference laboratory for tumor profiling.

Drugging Hijacked Kinase Pathways in Pediatric Oncology: Opportunities and Current Scenario

Childhood cancer is considered rare, corresponding to ~3% of all malignant neoplasms in the human population. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports a universal occurrence of more than 15 cases per 100,000 inhabitants around the globe, and despite improvements in diagnosis, treatment and supportive care, one child dies of cancer every 3 min. Consequently, more efficient, selective and affordable therapeutics are still needed in order to improve outcomes and avoid long-term sequelae. Alterations in kinases' functionality is a trademark of cancer and the concept of exploiting them as drug targets has burgeoned in academia and in the pharmaceutical industry of the 21st century. Consequently, an increasing plethora of inhibitors has emerged. In the present study, the expression patterns of a selected group of kinases (including tyrosine receptors, members of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and MAPK pathways, coordinators of cell cycle progression, and chromosome segregation) and their correlation with clinical outcomes in pediatric solid tumors were accessed through the R2: Genomics Analysis and Visualization Platform and by a thorough search of published literature. To further illustrate the importance of kinase dysregulation in the pathophysiology of pediatric cancer, we analyzed the vulnerability of different cancer cell lines against their inhibition through the Cancer Dependency Map portal, and performed a search for kinase-targeted compounds with approval and clinical applicability through the CanSAR knowledgebase. Finally, we provide a detailed literature review of a considerable set of small molecules that mitigate kinase activity under experimental testing and clinical trials for the treatment of pediatric tumors, while discuss critical challenges that must be overcome before translation into clinical options, including the absence of compounds designed specifically for childhood tumors which often show differential mutational burdens, intrinsic and acquired resistance, lack of selectivity and adverse effects on a growing organism.

Targeted treatment of solid tumors in pediatric precision oncology

The treatment of childhood solid cancer has markedly evolved in recent years following a refined molecular characterization and the introduction of novel targeted drugs. On one hand, larger sequencing studies have revealed a spectrum of mutations in pediatric tumors different from adults. On the other hand, specific mutations or immune dysregulated pathways have been targeted in preclinical and clinical studies, with heterogeneous results. Of note, the development of national platforms for tumor molecular profiling and, in less measure, for targeted treatment, has been essential in the process. However, many of the available molecules have been tested only in relapsed or refractory patients, and have proven poorly effective, at least in monotherapy. Our future approaches should certainly aim at improving the access to molecular characterization, to obtain a deeper picture of the distinctive phenotype of childhood cancer. In parallel, the implementation of access to novel drugs should not only be limited to basket or umbrella studies but also to larger, multi-drug international studies. In this paper we reviewed the molecular features and the main available therapeutic options in pediatric solid cancer, focusing on available targeted drugs and ongoing investigations, aiming at providing a useful tool to navigate the heterogeneity of this promising but complex field.

The Insulin Receptor: An Important Target for the Development of Novel Medicines and Pesticides

The insulin receptor (IR) is a transmembrane protein that is activated by ligands in insulin signaling pathways. The IR has been considered as a novel therapeutic target for clinical intervention, considering the overexpression of its protein and A-isoform in multiple cancers, Alzheimer’s disease, and Type 2 diabetes mellitus in humans. Meanwhile, it may also serve as a potential target in pest management due to its multiple physiological influences in insects. In this review, we provide an overview of the structural and molecular biology of the IR, functions of IRs in humans and insects, physiological and nonpeptide small molecule modulators of the IR, and the regulating mechanisms of the IR. Xenobiotic compounds and the corresponding insecticidal chemicals functioning on the IR are also discussed. This review is expected to provide useful information for a better understanding of human IR-related diseases, as well as to facilitate the development of novel small-molecule activators and inhibitors of the IR for use as medicines or pesticides.

Targeting the FAK-Src Complex in Desmoplastic Small Round Cell Tumors, Ewing Sarcoma, and Rhabdomyosarcoma

Desmoplastic small round cell tumors (DSRCTs), Ewing sarcoma (ES), and alveolar and embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma (ARMS and ERMS) are malignant sarcomas typically occurring at young age, with a poor prognosis in the metastatic setting. New treatment options are necessary. Src family kinase inhibitor dasatinib single-agent treatment has been investigated in a phase 2 study in patients with advanced sarcomas including ES and RMS but failed as a single agent in these subtypes. Since previous studies demonstrated high FAK and Src activities in RMS and ES tissue and cell lines, and dasatinib treatment was shown to upregulate activated FAK, we hypothesized that FAK-Src combination treatment could potentially be an interesting treatment option for these tumor types. We examined the effects of targeting the FAK-Src complex by addressing (p)FAK and (p)Src expressions in tumor sections of DSRCT (n = 13), ES (n = 68), ARMS (n = 21), and ERMS (n = 39) and by determining the antitumor effects of single and combined treatment with FAK inhibitor defactinib and multikinase (Abl/SFK) inhibitor dasatinib in vitro on cell lines of each subtype. In vivo effects were assessed in DSRCT and ERMS models. Concurrent pFAK and pSrc expressions (H-score >50) were observed in DSRCT (67%), ES (6%), ARMS (35%), and ERMS (19%) samples. Defactinib treatment decreased pFAK expression and reduced cell viability in all subtypes. Dasatinib treatment decreased pSrc expression and cell viability in each subtype. Combination treatment led to a complete reduction in pFAK and pSrc in each cell line and showed enhanced cell viability reduction, drug synergy, DNA damage induction, and a trend toward higher apoptosis induction in DSRCT, ERMS, and ARMS but not in ES cells. These promising in vitro results unfortunately do not translate into promising in vivo results as we did not observe a significant effect on tumor volume in vivo, and the combination did not show superior effects compared to dasatinib single-agent treatment.

Precision medicine and phosphoproteomics for the identification of novel targeted therapeutic avenues in sarcomas

Rapid advances in genomic technologies have enabled in-depth interrogation of cancer genomes, revealing novel and unexpected therapeutic targets in many cancer types. Identifying actionable dependencies in the diverse and heterogeneous group of sarcomas, particularly those that occur in children or adolescents and young adults (AYAs), remains especially challenging. These patients rarely harbor actionable genomic aberrations, no targeted agent is approved, and outcomes have remained poor for the past decades. This underlines a clear need to refine our methods for target identification. Phosphoproteomics studies in sarcoma showed the power of such analyses to capture novel actionable drivers that are not accompanied by mutational events or gene amplifications. This Review makes the case that incorporating phosphoproteomic molecular profiling alongside (functional) genomics technologies can significantly expand therapeutic target identification, and pinpoint drug mechanisms of action, in pediatric and AYA sarcoma patients. We explore the utility and prospects of phosphoproteomics in personalized medicine.

Signaling pathways in Rhabdomyosarcoma invasion and metastasis

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is an aggressive childhood mesenchymal tumor with two major molecular and histopathologic subtypes: fusion-positive (FP)RMS, characterized by the PAX3-FOXO1 fusion protein and largely of alveolar histology, and fusion-negative (FN)RMS, the majority of which exhibit embryonal tumor histology. Metastatic disease continues to be associated with poor overall survival despite intensive treatment strategies. Studies on RMS biology have provided some insight into autocrine as well as paracrine signaling pathways that contribute to invasion and metastatic propensity. Such pathways include those driven by the PAX3-FOXO1 fusion oncoprotein in FPRMS and signaling pathways such as IGF/RAS/MEK/ERK, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, cMET, FGFR4, and PDGFR in both FP and FNRMS. In addition, specific cytoskeletal proteins, G protein coupled receptors, Hedgehog, Notch, Wnt, Hippo, and p53 pathways play a role, as do specific microRNA. Paracrine factors, including secreted proteins and RMS-derived exosomes that carry cargo of protein and miRNA, have also recently emerged as potentially important players in RMS biology. This review summarizes the known factors contributing to RMS invasion and metastasis and their implications on identifying targets for treatment and a better understanding of metastatic RMS.

Olaparib and temozolomide in desmoplastic small round cell tumors: a promising combination in vitro and in vivo

Purpose

Desmoplastic small round cell tumors (DSRCTs) are highly malignant and very rare soft tissue sarcomas with a high unmet need for new therapeutic options. Therefore, we examined poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1) and Schlafen-11 (SLFN11) expression in DSRCT tumor tissue and the combination of PARP inhibitor olaparib with the alkylating agent temozolomide (TMZ) in a preclinical DSRCT model.

Methods

PARP1 and SLFN11 have been described as predictive biomarkers for response to PARP inhibition. Expression of PARP1 and SLFN11 was assessed in 16 and 12 DSRCT tumor tissue samples, respectively. Effects of single-agent olaparib, and olaparib and TMZ combination treatment were examined using the preclinical JN-DSRCT-1 model. In vitro, single-agent and combination treatment effects on cell viability, the cell cycle, DNA damage and apoptosis were examined. Olaparib and TMZ combination treatment was also assessed in vivo.

Results

PARP1 and SLFN11 expression was observed in 100% and 92% of DSRCT tumor tissues, respectively. Olaparib treatment reduced cell viability and cell migration in a dose-dependent manner in vitro. Drug synergy between olaparib and TMZ was observed in vitro and in vivo. Combination treatment led to a cell-cycle arrest and induction of DNA damage and apoptosis, even when combined at low dosages.

Conclusion

We show high PARP1 and SLFN11 expression in DSRCT tumor material and antitumor effects following olaparib and TMZ combination treatment in a preclinical DSRCT model. This suggests that olaparib and TMZ combination treatment could be a potential treatment option for DSRCTs.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s00432-020-03211-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Safety and Activity of the Combination of Ceritinib and Dasatinib in Osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma (OS) is the second most common cause of cancer-related death in pediatric patients. The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) pathway plays a relevant role in the biology of OS but no IGF targeted therapies have been successful as monotherapy so far. Here, we tested the effect of three IGF specific inhibitors and tested ceritinib as an off-target inhibitor, alone or in combination with dasatinib, on the proliferation of seven primary OS cells. Picropodophyllin, particularly in combination with dasatinib and the combination ceritinib/dasatinib were effective in abrogating the proliferation. The ceritinib/dasatinib combination was applied to the primary cells of a 16-year-old girl with a long history of lung metastases, and was more effective than cabozantinib and olaparib. Therefore, the combination was used to treat the patient. The treatment was well tolerated, with toxicity limited to skin rush and diarrhea. A histopathological evaluation of the tumor after three months of therapy indicated regions of high necrosis and extensive infiltration of macrophages. The extension of the necrosis was proportional to the concentration of dasatinib and ceritinib in the area, as analysed by an ultra performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometer (UPLC-MS/MS). After the cessation of the therapy, radiological analysis indicated a massive growth of the patient’s liver metastases. In conclusion, these data indicate that the combination of ceritinib/dasatinib is safe and may be used to develop new therapy protocols.

Turning liabilities into opportunities: Off-target based drug repurposing in cancer

Targeted drugs and precision medicine have transformed the landscape of cancer therapy and significantly improved patient outcomes in many cases. However, as therapies are becoming more and more tailored to smaller patient populations and acquired resistance is limiting the duration of clinical responses, there is an ever increasing demand for new drugs, which is not easily met considering steadily rising drug attrition rates and development costs. Considering these challenges drug repurposing is an attractive complementary approach to traditional drug discovery that can satisfy some of these needs. This is facilitated by the fact that most targeted drugs, despite their implicit connotation, are not singularly specific, but rather display a wide spectrum of target selectivity. Importantly, some of the unintended drug "off-targets" are known anticancer targets in their own right. Others are becoming recognized as such in the process of elucidating off-target mechanisms that in fact are responsible for a drug's anticancer activity, thereby revealing potentially new cancer vulnerabilities. Harnessing such beneficial off-target effects can therefore lead to novel and promising precision medicine approaches. Here, we will discuss experimental and computational methods that are employed to specifically develop single target and network-based off-target repurposing strategies, for instance with drug combinations or polypharmacology drugs. By illustrating concrete examples that have led to clinical translation we will furthermore examine the various scientific and non-scientific factors that cumulatively determine the success of these efforts and thus can inform the future development of new and potentially lifesaving off-target based drug repurposing strategies for cancers that constitute important unmet medical needs.

Ceritinib-Induced Regression of an Insulin-Like Growth Factor-Driven Neuroepithelial Brain Tumor

The insulin-like growth factor (IGF) pathway plays an important role in several brain tumor entities. However, the lack of inhibitors crossing the blood–brain barrier remains a significant obstacle for clinical translation. Here, we targeted the IGF pathway using ceritinib, an off-target inhibitor of the IGF1 receptor (IGF1R) and insulin receptor (INSR), in a pediatric patient with an unclassified brain tumor and a notch receptor 1 (NOTCH1) germline mutation. Pathway analysis of the tumor revealed activation of the sonic hedgehog (SHH), the wingless and integrated-1 (WNT), the IGF, and the Notch pathway. The proliferation of the patient tumor cells (225ZL) was inhibited by arsenic trioxide (ATO), which is an inhibitor of the SHH pathway, by linsitinib, which is an inhibitor of IGF1R and INSR, and by ceritinib. 225ZL expressed INSR but not IGF1R at the protein level, and ceritinib blocked the phosphorylation of INSR. Our first personalized treatment included ATO, but because of side effects, we switched to ceritinib. After 46 days, we achieved a concentration of 1.70 µM of ceritinib in the plasma, and after 58 days, MRI confirmed that there was a response to the treatment. Ceritinib accumulated in the tumor at a concentration of 2.72 µM. Our data suggest ceritinib as a promising drug for the treatment of IGF-driven brain tumors.

IGF1R Is a Potential New Therapeutic Target for HGNET-BCOR Brain Tumor Patients

(1) Background: The high-grade neuroepithelial tumor of the central nervous system with BCOR alteration (HGNET-BCOR) is a highly malignant tumor. Preclinical models and molecular targets are urgently required for this cancer. Previous data suggest a potential role of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling in HGNET-BCOR. (2) Methods: The primary HGNET-BCOR cells PhKh1 were characterized by western blot, copy number variation, and methylation analysis and by electron microscopy. The expression of IGF2 and IGF1R was assessed by qRT-PCR. The effect of chemotherapeutics and IGF1R inhibitors on PhKh1 proliferation was tested. The phosphorylation of IGF1R and downstream molecules was assessed by western blot. (3) Results: Phkh1 cells showed a DNA methylation profile compatible with the DNA methylation class "HGNET-BCOR" and morphologic features of cellular cannibalism. IGF2 and IGF1R were highly expressed by three HGNET-BCOR tumor samples and PhKh1 cells. PhKh1 cells were particularly sensitive to vincristine, vinblastine, actinomycin D (IC₅₀ < 10 nM for all drugs), and ceritinib (IC₅₀ = 310 nM). Ceritinib was able to abrogate the proliferation of PhKh1 cells and blocked the phosphorylation of IGF1R and AKT. (4) Conclusion: IGF1R is as an attractive target for the development of new therapy protocols for HGNET-BCOR patients, which may include ceritinib and vinblastine.

Translocation-Related Sarcomas

Chromosomal translocations are observed in approximately 20% of soft tissue sarcomas (STS). With the advances in pathological examination technology, the identification of translocations has enabled precise diagnoses and classifications of STS, and it has been suggested that the presence of and differences in translocations could be prognostic factors in some translocation-related sarcomas. Most of the translocations in STS were not regarded as targets of molecular therapies until recently. However, trabectedin, an alkylating agent, has shown clinical benefits against translocation-related sarcoma based on a modulation of the transcription of the tumor's oncogenic fusion proteins. Many molecular-targeted drugs that are specific to translocations (e.g., anaplastic lymphoma kinase and tropomyosin kinase related fusion proteins) have emerged. The progress in gene technologies has allowed researchers to identify and even induce new translocations and fusion proteins, which might become targets of molecular-targeted therapies. In this review, we discuss the clinical significance of translocation-related sarcomas, including their diagnoses and targeted therapies.

Therapeutic Approaches Targeting PAX3-FOXO1 and Its Regulatory and Transcriptional Pathways in Rhabdomyosarcoma

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is a family of soft tissue cancers that are related to the skeletal muscle lineage and predominantly occur in children and young adults. A specific chromosomal translocation t(2;13)(q35;q14) that gives rise to the chimeric oncogenic transcription factor PAX3-FOXO1 has been identified as a hallmark of the aggressive alveolar subtype of RMS. PAX3-FOXO1 cooperates with additional molecular changes to promote oncogenic transformation and tumorigenesis in various human and murine models. Its expression is generally restricted to RMS tumor cells, thus providing a very specific target for therapeutic approaches for these RMS tumors. In this article, we review the recent understanding of PAX3-FOXO1 as a transcription factor in the pathogenesis of this cancer and discuss recent developments to target this oncoprotein for treatment of RMS.

The tyrosine kinase inhibitor crizotinib does not have clinically meaningful activity in heavily pre-treated patients with advanced alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma with FOXO rearrangement: European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer phase 2 trial 90101 'CREATE'

BACKGROUND

Alveolar rhabdomyosarcomas (ARMSs) can harbour MET and anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) alterations. We prospectively assessed crizotinib in patients with advanced/metastatic ARMS.

METHODS

Eligible patients with a central diagnosis of ARMS received oral crizotinib 250 mg twice daily. Patients were attributed to MET/ALK+ or MET/ALK- subcohorts by assessing the presence or absence of the forkhead box O1 (FOXO1; a marker of MET upregulation) and/or ALK gene rearrangement. The primary end-point was the objective response rate (ORR). Secondary end-points included duration of response (DOR), disease control rate (DCR), progression-free survival (PFS), progression-free rate (PFR), overall survival (OS) and safety.

FINDINGS

Nineteen of 20 consenting patients had centrally confirmed ARMS. Molecular assessment revealed rearrangement of FOXO1 in 17 tumours and ALK in none. Thirteen eligible patients were treated, but only eight were evaluable for the primary end-point because of the observed aggressiveness of the disease. Among seven evaluable MET+/ALK- patients, only one achieved a confirmed partial response (ORR: 14.3%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.3-57.8) with a DOR of 52 d. Further MET+/ALK- efficacy end-points were DCR: 14.3% (95% CI: 0.3-57.8), median PFS: 1.3 months (95% CI: 0.5-1.5) and median OS: 5.6 months (95% CI: 0.7-7.0). The remaining MET+/ALK- and MET-/ALK- patients had early progression as best response. Common treatment-related adverse events were fatigue (5/13 [38.5%]), nausea (4/13 [30.8%]), anorexia (4/13 [30.8%]), vomiting (2/13 [15.4%]) and constipation (2/13 [15.4%]). All 13 treated patients died early because of progressive disease.

INTERPRETATION

Crizotinib is well tolerated but lacks clinically meaningful activity as a single agent in patients with advanced metastatic ARMS. Assessing single agents in aggressive, chemotherapy-refractory ARMS is challenging, and future trials should explore established chemotherapy ± investigational compounds in earlier lines of treatment.

CLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER

EORTC 90101, ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01524926.

Current Molecular Targeted Therapies for Bone and Soft Tissue Sarcomas

Systemic treatment options for bone and soft tissue sarcomas remained unchanged until the 2000s. These cancers presented challenges in new drug development partly because of their rarity and heterogeneity. Many new molecular targeting drugs have been tried in the 2010s, and some were approved for bone and soft tissue sarcoma. As one of the first molecular targeted drugs approved for solid malignant tumors, imatinib's approval as a treatment for gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs) has been a great achievement. Following imatinib, other tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) have been approved for GISTs such as sunitinib and regorafenib, and pazopanib was approved for non-GIST soft tissue sarcomas. Olaratumab, the monoclonal antibody that targets platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR)-α, was shown to extend the overall survival of soft tissue sarcoma patients and was approved in 2016 in the U.S. as a breakthrough therapy. For bone tumors, new drugs are limited to denosumab, a receptor activator of nuclear factor κB ligand (RANKL) inhibitor, for treating giant cell tumors of bone. In this review, we explain and summarize the current molecular targeting therapies approved and in development for bone and soft tissue sarcomas.