Vaccine Therapies for Cancer: Then and Now

Effective design of therapeutic nanovaccines based on tumor neoantigens

Neoantigen vaccines are among the most potent immunotherapies for personalized cancer treatment. Therapeutic vaccines containing tumor-specific neoantigens that elicit specific T cell responses offer the potential for long-term clinical benefits to cancer patients. Unlike immune-checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs), which rely on pre-existing specific T cell responses, personalized neoantigen vaccines not only promote existing specific T cell responses but importantly stimulate the generation of neoantigen-specific T cells, leading to the establishment of a persistent specific memory T cell pool. The review discusses the current state of clinical research on neoantigen nanovaccines, focusing on the application of vectors, adjuvants, and combinational strategies to address a range of challenges and optimize therapeutic outcomes.

Tumor Antigen-Coated Two-Dimensional Black Phosphorus as a Nanovaccine for Synergistic Cancer Photothermal Therapy and Immunotherapy

Vaccine immunotherapy is paving the way for an effective long-term immune response and targeted destruction of tumor cells and shows promise as a leading strategy in tumor treatment. Nanoparticles are crucial in combining vaccine immunotherapy and photothermal therapy (PTT), generating local tumor thermal ablation, and triggering a powerful antitumor immune response that inhibits tumor recurrence. In this study, we designed a nanovaccine that combined PTT and immunotherapy for tumors using two-dimensional black phosphorus (BP) as a nanoplatform that was modified with maleimide poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG-MAL) and coated with tumor antigen proteins (BP-PEG-MAL@antigen). The BP-PEG-MAL@antigen nanovaccines displayed outstanding stability and biocompatibility due to the comodification of PEG and antigen proteins. The nanovaccines induced strong immune responses in vitro and in vivo that effectively inhibited orthotopic and bilateral tumor growth, prolonged survival time, and improved the survival rate of mice. In addition, the nanovaccines generated a long-term immune response and effectively inhibited tumor recurrence.

A new era of cancer immunotherapy: vaccines and miRNAs

Cancer immunotherapy has transformed the treatment landscape, introducing new strategies to fight various types of cancer. This review examines the important role of vaccines in cancer therapy, focusing on recent advancements such as dendritic cell vaccines, mRNA vaccines, and viral vector-based approaches. The relationship between cancer and the immune system highlights the importance of vaccines as therapeutic tools. The discussion covers tumor cell and dendritic cell vaccines, protein/peptide vaccines, and nucleic acid vaccines (including DNA, RNA, or viral vector-based), with a focus on their effectiveness and underlying mechanisms. Combination therapies that pair vaccines with immune checkpoint inhibitors, TIL therapy, and TCR/CAR-T cell therapy show promising potential, boosting antitumor responses. Additionally, the review explores the regulatory functions of microRNAs (miRNAs) in cancer development and suppression, featuring miR-21, miR-155, the let-7 family, and the miR-200 family, among others. These miRNAs influence various pathways, such as PI3K/AKT, NF-κB, and EMT regulation, providing insights into biomarker-driven therapeutic strategies. Overall, this work offers a thorough overview of vaccines in oncology and the integrative role of miRNAs, setting the stage for the next generation of cancer immunotherapies.

CircRNAs in Colorectal Cancer: Unveiling Their Roles and Exploring Therapeutic Potential

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the most common malignancy of the digestive system. Although research into the causes of CRC's origin and progression has advanced over the past few decades, many details are still not fully understood. Circular RNAs (circRNAs), as a novel regulatory molecule, have been found to be closely involved in various key biological processes in CRC. CircRNAs also have been shown to encode proteins, which could offer new possibilities for therapeutic applications. This ability to produce tumor-specific proteins makes circRNA-based vaccines a potentially valuable approach for targeted cancer treatment. In this review, we summarize recent findings on the various roles of circRNAs in CRC and explore their potential in the development of protein-encoding circRNA vaccines for CRC therapy.

The application of emerging immunotherapy in the treatment of prostate cancer: progress, dilemma and promise

In recent years, there has been a growing trend towards the utilization of immunotherapy techniques for the treatment of cancer. Some malignancies have acquired significant progress with the use of cancer vaccines, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and adoptive cells therapy. Scholars are exploring the aforementioned methods as potential treatments for advanced prostate cancer (PCa) due to the absence of effective adjuvant therapy to improve the prognosis of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer (mCRPC). Immunotherapy strategies have yet to achieve significant advancements in the treatment of PCa, largely attributed to the inhibitory tumor microenvironment and low mutation load characteristic of this malignancy. Hence, researchers endeavor to address these challenges by optimizing the design and efficacy of immunotherapy approaches, as well as integrating them with other therapeutic modalities. To date, studies have also shown potential clinical benefits. This comprehensive review analyzed the utilization of immunotherapy techniques in the treatment of PCa, assessing their advantages and obstacles, with the aim of providing healthcare professionals and scholars with a comprehensive understanding of the progress in this field.

Antitumor Research Based on Drug Delivery Carriers: Reversing the Polarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages

The development of malignant tumors is a complex process that involves the tumor microenvironment (TME). An immunosuppressive TME presents significant challenges to current cancer therapies, serving as a key mechanism through which tumor cells evade immune detection and play a crucial role in tumor progression and metastasis. This impedes the optimal effectiveness of immunotherapeutic approaches, including cytokines, immune checkpoint inhibitors, and cancer vaccines. Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), a major component of tumor-infiltrating immune cells, exhibit dual functionalities: M1-like TAMs suppress tumorigenesis, while M2-like TAMs promote tumor growth and metastasis. Consequently, the development of various nanocarriers aimed at polarizing M2-like TAMs to M1-like phenotypes through distinct mechanisms has emerged as a promising therapeutic strategy to inhibit tumor immune escape and enhance antitumor responses. This Review covers the origin and types of TAMs, common pathways regulating macrophage polarization, the role of TAMs in tumor progression, and therapeutic strategies targeting TAMs, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding and guidance for future research and clinical applications.

The progress of tumor vaccines clinical trials in non-small cell lung cancer

BACKGROUND

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains a significant global health challenge, with high mortality rates and limited treatment options. Tumor vaccines have emerged as a potential therapeutic approach, aiming to stimulate the immune system to specifically target tumor cells.

METHODS

This study screened 283 clinical trials registered on ClinicalTrials.gov through July 31, 2023. After excluding data that did not meet the inclusion criteria, a total of 108 trials were assessed. Data on registered number, study title, study status, vaccine types, study results, conditions, interventions, outcome measures, sponsor, collaborators, drug target, phases, enrollment, start date, completion date and locations were extracted and analyzed.

RESULTS

The number of vaccines clinical trials for NSCLC has continued to increase in recent years, the majority of which were conducted in the United States. Most of the clinical trials were at stages ranging from Phase I to Phase II. Peptide-based vaccines accounted for the largest proportion. Others include tumor cell vaccines, DNA/RNA vaccines, viral vector vaccines, and DC vaccines. Several promising tumor vaccine candidates have shown encouraging results in early-phase clinical trials. However, challenges such as heterogeneity of tumor antigens and immune escape mechanisms still need to be addressed.

CONCLUSION

Tumor vaccines represent a promising avenue in the treatment of NSCLC. Ongoing clinical trials are crucial for optimizing vaccine strategies and identifying the most effective combinations. Further research is needed to overcome existing limitations and translate these promising findings into clinical practice, offering new hope for NSCLC patients.

An in-depth review of AI-powered advancements in cancer drug discovery

The convergence of artificial intelligence (AI) and genomics is redefining cancer drug discovery by facilitating the development of personalized and effective therapies. This review examines the transformative role of AI technologies, including deep learning and advanced data analytics, in accelerating key stages of the drug discovery process: target identification, drug design, clinical trial optimization, and drug response prediction. Cutting-edge tools such as DrugnomeAI and PandaOmics have made substantial contributions to therapeutic target identification, while AI's predictive capabilities are driving personalized treatment strategies. Additionally, advancements like AlphaFold highlight AI's capacity to address intricate challenges in drug development. However, the field faces significant challenges, including the management of large-scale genomic datasets and ethical concerns surrounding AI deployment in healthcare. This review underscores the promise of data-centric AI approaches and emphasizes the necessity of continued innovation and interdisciplinary collaboration. Together, AI and genomics are charting a path toward more precise, efficient, and transformative cancer therapeutics.

Transdermal delivery of PeptiCRAd cancer vaccine using microneedle patches

Microneedles (MNs) are a prospective system in cancer immunotherapy to overcome barriers regarding proper antigen delivery and presentation. This study aims at identifying the potential of MNs for the delivery of Peptide-coated Conditionally Replicating Adenoviruses (PeptiCRAd), whereby peptides enhance the immunogenic properties of adenoviruses presenting tumor associated antigens. The combination of PeptiCRAd with MNs containing polyvinylpyrrolidone and sucrose was tested for the preservation of structure, induction of immune response, and tumor eradication. The findings indicated that MN-delivered PeptiCRAd was effective in peptide presentation in vivo, leading to complete tumor rejection when mice were pre-vaccinated. A rise in the cDC1 population in the lymph nodes of the MN treated mice led to an increase in the effector memory T cells in the body. Thus, the results of this study demonstrate that the combination of MN technology with PeptiCRAd may provide a safer, more tolerable, and efficient approach to cancer immunotherapy, potentially translatable to other therapeutic applications.

Gold Nanoparticles Synthesized with Triple-Negative Breast Cancer Cell Lysate Enhance Antitumoral Immunity: A Novel Synthesis Method

Background: Gold nanoparticles enhance immunity, promotes antigen uptake by antigen-presenting cells (APCs), and boost the response against tumor antigens; therefore, they are a promising delivery vehicle. Tumor lysates have shown favorable responses as inductors of anti-cancer immunity, but the effectiveness of these treatments could be improved. Hybrid nanosystems gold nanoparticles with biomolecules have been show promising alternative on uptake, activation and response on immune system. Objectives: This study's objective was to develop a method of synthesizing gold nanoparticles employing a triple-negative breast cancer (4T1) cell lysate (AuLtNps) as a reducing agent to increase immunogenicity against breast cancer cells. Methods: Nanoparticle formation, size, and ζ potential were confirmed by surface plasmon resonance, dynamic light scattering, and transmission electron microscopy. Protein concentration was quantified using a Pierce BCA assay. The cytotoxic effects of treatments on murine macrophages were assessed, along with nanoparticle and tumor lysate uptake via epifluorescence microscopy. Using a murine model, cytokine secretion profiles were determined, and the efficacy in inhibiting the implantation of a 4T1 model was evaluated. Results/Conclusions: AuLtNps exhibited higher protein content than tumor lysate alone, leading to increased uptake and phagocytosis in murine macrophages, as confirmed by epifluorescence microscopy. Cytokine secretion analysis showed a proinflammatory response, with increased CD8+ and CD22+ lymphocytes and upregulation of APC markers (CD14, CD80, CD86, and MHC II+). Splenocytes demonstrated specific lysis of up to 40% against 4T1 tumor cells. In a murine model, AuLtNPs effectively inhibited tumor implantation, achieving an improved 90-days survival rate, highlighting their potential as an immunotherapy for triple-negative breast cancer.

Biomimetic Nanoparticle Based Targeted mRNA Vaccine Delivery as a Novel Therapy for Glioblastoma Multiforme

The prognosis for patients with glioblastoma multiforme (GBM), an aggressive and deadly brain tumor, is poor due to the limited therapeutic options available. Biomimetic nanoparticles have emerged as a promising vehicle for targeted mRNA vaccine delivery, thanks to recent advances in nanotechnology. This presents a novel treatment method for GBM. This review explores the potential of using biomimetic nanoparticles to improve the specificity and effectiveness of mRNA vaccine against GBM. These nanoparticles can evade immune detection, cross the blood-brain barrier, & deliver mRNA directly to glioma cells by mimicking natural biological structures. This allows glioma cells to produce tumor-specific antigens that trigger strong immune responses against the tumor. This review discusses biomimetic nanoparticle design strategies, which are critical for optimizing transport and ensuring targeted action. These tactics include surface functionalization and encapsulation techniques. It also highlights the ongoing preclinical research and clinical trials that demonstrate the therapeutic advantages and challenges of this strategy. Biomimetic nanoparticles for mRNA vaccine delivery represent a new frontier in GBM treatment, which could impact the management of this deadly disease and improve patient outcomes by integrating cutting-edge nanotechnology with immunotherapy.

Ddx21 mutant peptide is an effective neoantigen in prophylactic lung cancer vaccines and activates long-term anti-tumor immunity

Introduction

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide, and its morbidity and mortality are increasing. Although low-dose CT lung cancer screening has been shown to reduce lung cancer mortality, its adoption rate is limited and the pace of its promotion is slow, highlighting the urgent need for more effective prevention measures. Prophylactic vaccines play a crucial role in cancer prevention. Our previous studies indicated that mice immunized with a prophylactic vaccine based on lung cancer cell lines KPL 160302S, derived from early-stage murine lung cancer tissues, exhibited a significantly extended survival period, with a strong anti-tumor immune response. While the vaccine based on KPL 160424S, derived from advanced-stage murine lung cancer tissues, failed to extend survival time and demonstrated limited capacity to stimulate anti-tumor immunity.

Methods

To investigate the fundamental reason for the difference between KPL 160302S and KPL 160424S vaccines, we employed bioinformatics methods and immune related experiments to explore the effects and mechanisms of the screened neoantigens.

Results

Our findings demonstrated that immunization with the Ddx21 mutant peptide (Ddx21MT), unique to KPL 160302S, could significantly increase the proportion of central memory T cells (TCM) in mice and activate anti-tumor immunity.

Discussion

These results suggest that the Ddx21MT is a highly effective neoantigen that can activate anti-tumor immunity, which can serve as an important component in developing a lung cancer vaccine and is expected to be used in combination with other immunotherapy approaches.

Cancer vaccines: Target antigens, vaccine platforms and preclinical models

This review provides a comprehensive overview of the evolving landscape of cancer vaccines, highlighting their potential to revolutionize tumor prevention. Building on the success of vaccines against virus-related cancers, such as HPV- and HBV-associated cervical and liver cancers, the current challenge is to extend these achievements to the prevention of non-viral tumors and the treatment of preneoplastic or early neoplastic lesions. This review analyzes the critical aspects of preventive anti-cancer vaccination, focusing on the choice of target antigens, the development of effective vaccine platforms and technologies, and the use of various model systems for preclinical testing, from laboratory rodents to companion animals.

Identification of tumor-antigen signatures and immune subtypes for mRNA vaccine selection in muscle-invasive bladder cancer

BACKGROUND

Muscle-invasive bladder cancer continues to lack reliable diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. Recently, tumor vaccines targeting specific molecules have emerged as a promising treatment in inhibiting tumor progression, which was rekindled under the background of coronavirus disease-2019 pandemic. However, the application of mRNA vaccine targeting muscle-invasive bladder cancer-specific antigens remains limited, and there has been a lack of comprehensive studies or validations to identify suitable patient subgroups for vaccination. This study aims to explore novel muscle-invasive bladder cancer antigen signatures to identify patients most likely to benefit from vaccination.

METHODS

Gene expression profiles of muscle-invasive bladder cancer samples, along with corresponding clinical data, were retrieved from the Cancer Genome Atlas Program. The least absolute shrinkage and selection operator model was applied to develop signatures for stratifying muscle-invasive bladder cancer patients. Prognostic accuracy of each factor was assessed using receiver operating characteristic analysis. Tumor Immune Estimation Resource was employed to visualize the relationship between the proportion of antigen-presenting cells and the expression of selected genes. The CIBERSORT and WGCNA R packages were used to identify differences in immune infiltration levels across muscle-invasive bladder cancer subgroups. Additionally, the STRING database and Cytoscape were used to construct the protein-protein interaction network. CCK-8 and colony formation assays were employed in invitro experiments.

RESULTS

A total of 49 potential tumor antigens were identified. Using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator Cox regression, 14 tumor antigens were selected to develop a risk evaluation signature. The risk score signature can serve as a valuable tool for predicting the outcomes of muscle-invasive bladder cancer patients. Based on differential clinical, molecular, and immune-related gene profiles, muscle-invasive bladder cancer patients were classified into 2 subtypes: the immune "cold" subtype (immune score 1) and the immune "hot" subtype (immune score 2). The immune score signature, developed using a logistic score model, effectively distinguishes between patients more likely to belong to immune score 1 or 2. Notably, patients with a high risk score exhibited a higher proportion of immune score 2 compared to those with a low risk score. Additionally, the prognostic accuracy was significantly enhanced when the risk score and immune score were combined. Different tumor subtypes displayed distinct immune landscapes and signaling pathways. Moreover, novel tumor antigens associated with oxidative stress were identified.

CONCLUSION

The risk score and immune score signatures based on tumor antigens have identified potential effective neo-antigens for the development of mRNA vaccines targeting muscle-invasive bladder cancer. Patients with low risk score and immune score 1 subtype are more likely to benefit from mRNA vaccination. Additionally, this study highlights the critical role of oxidative stress in modulating the efficacy of the mRNA vaccine.

Feature selection enhances peptide binding predictions for TCR-specific interactions

Introduction

T-cell receptors (TCRs) play a critical role in the immune response by recognizing specific ligand peptides presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Accurate prediction of peptide binding to TCRs is essential for advancing immunotherapy, vaccine design, and understanding mechanisms of autoimmune disorders.

Methods

This study presents a theoretical approach that explores the impact of feature selection techniques on enhancing the predictive accuracy of peptide binding models tailored for specific TCRs. To evaluate our approach across different TCR systems, we utilized a dataset that includes peptide libraries tested against three distinct murine TCRs. A broad range of physicochemical properties, including amino acid composition, dipeptide composition, and tripeptide features, were integrated into the machine learning-based feature selection framework to identify key properties contributing to binding affinity.

Results

Our analysis reveals that leveraging optimized feature subsets not only simplifies the model complexity but also enhances predictive performance, enabling more precise identification of TCR peptide interactions. The results of our feature selection method are consistent with findings from hybrid approaches that utilize both sequence and structural data as input as well as experimental data.

Discussion

Our theoretical approach highlights the role of feature selection in peptide-TCR interactions, providing a quantitative tool for uncovering the molecular mechanisms of the T-cell response and assisting in the design of more advanced targeted therapeutics.

Hidden Partner of Immunity: Microbiome as an Innovative Companion in Immunotherapy

Recent studies have highlighted that the microbiome is the essential factor that can modulate the clinical activity of immunotherapy. However, the role of the microbiome varies significantly across different immunotherapies, suggesting that it is critical to understand the precise function of the microbiome in each type of immunotherapy. While many previous studies primarily focus on summarizing the role of the microbiome in immune checkpoint inhibitors, we seek to explore a novel aspect of the microbiome in other immunotherapies such as mesenchymal stem cell therapy, chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy, and antibodies-based therapy (e.g., adalimumab, infliximab, bevacizumab, denosumab, etc.) which are rarely summarized in previous reviews. Moreover, we highlight innovative strategies for utilizing microbiome and microbial metabolites to enhance the clinical response of immunotherapy. Collectively, we believe that our manuscript will provide novel insights and innovative approaches to the researchers, which could drive the development of the next generation of personalized therapeutic interventions using microbiomes.

Autophagy-activating aluminum hydroxide nanovaccine for enhanced antigen presentation and anti-tumor immunity

Lymph node (LN) targeting and antigen presentation by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) are critical factors affecting the immune responses induced by tumor vaccines. Autophagy activation promotes MHC class I and II antigen presentation in APCs. To enhance antigen presentation in LNs, we developed an aluminum hydroxide nanovaccine that simultaneously incorporates the autophagy-activating peptide Beclin-1 and the antigenic protein OVA (B/O@AN nanovaccine) through layer-by-layer electrostatic interaction. B/O@AN has a particle size of approximately 80 nm and efficiently targets lymph nodes following subcutaneous administration. The combination of the Beclin-1 peptide with the aluminum hydroxide nanovaccine promotes dendritic cell (DC) maturation. More importantly, B/O@AN facilitates antigen cross-presentation by promoting lysosomal escape and autophagy induction. After immunization, compared to O/@AN without Beclin-1, B/O@AN significantly augments antigen-specific cellular immune responses, leading to substantial increases in cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), T-helper 1 (Th1) cells, as well as serum antibody levels, thereby impeding melanoma development and progression in both prophylactic and therapeutic settings. These results provide evidence that autophagy activation strengthens antigen presentation and augments the antigen-specific immune responses of the aluminum hydroxide nanovaccine.

Cancer vaccines: platforms and current progress

Cancer vaccines, crucial in the immunotherapeutic landscape, are bifurcated into preventive and therapeutic types, both integral to combating oncogenesis. Preventive cancer vaccines, like those against HPV and HBV, reduce the incidence of virus-associated cancers, while therapeutic cancer vaccines aim to activate dendritic cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes for durable anti-tumor immunity. Recent advancements in vaccine platforms, such as synthetic peptides, mRNA, DNA, cellular, and nano-vaccines, have enhanced antigen presentation and immune activation. Despite the US Food and Drug Administration approval for several vaccines, the full therapeutic potential remains unrealized due to challenges such as antigen selection, tumor-mediated immunosuppression, and optimization of delivery systems. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the aims and implications of preventive and therapeutic cancer vaccine, the innovative discovery of neoantigens enhancing vaccine specificity, and the latest strides in vaccine delivery platforms. It also critically evaluates the role of adjuvants in enhancing immunogenicity and mitigating the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. The review further examines the synergistic potential of combining cancer vaccines with other therapies, such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and immune checkpoint inhibitors, to improve therapeutic outcomes. Overcoming barriers such as effective antigen identification, immunosuppressive microenvironments, and adverse effects is critical for advancing vaccine development. By addressing these challenges, cancer vaccines can offer significant improvements in patient outcomes and broaden the scope of personalized cancer immunotherapy.

Proton pump inhibitor attenuates acidic microenvironment to improve the therapeutic effects of MSLN-CAR-T cells on the brain metastasis

The incidence of brain metastasis (BM) is gradually increasing, and the prognosis and therapeutic effect are poor. The emergence of immunotherapy has brought hope for the development of BM treatments. This study revealed that compared with primary cancers, BMs have a colder and more acidic tumor microenvironment (TME), resulting in reduced protein levels of mesothelin (MSLN), a promising target for chimeric antigen receptor-T (CAR-T) cell therapy for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) with BMs. These factors could significantly decrease the efficiency of MSLN-CAR-T cells in TNBC BMs. Pantoprazole (PPZ) administration at the most commonly used dose in the clinic notably increased the pH of the TME, inhibited lysosomal activity, increased the membrane levels of the MSLN protein and improved the killing ability of MSLN-CAR-T cells both in vitro and in vivo. Similar results were obtained in non-small cell lung cancer BMs. Hence, when administered in combination with CAR-T cells, PPZ, which increases the protein levels of target antigens, may constitute a new immunotherapeutic strategy for treating solid tumors with BMs.

Combination Nanodrug Delivery Systems Facilitate the Syncretism of Chemotherapy with Immunotherapy to Promote Cancer Treatment

Cancer has emerged as a significant threat that gravely endanger human health. Anti-tumor immunotherapy has now emerged as an important treatment for cancer. However, immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment limits the antitumor immunity. The importance of the immune system in the cancer treatment process must be emphasized. Herein, two precision-targeted nanoparticles PD-L1@Cur-NPs and PD-1@AS-NPs are constructed for cancer treatment. PD-L1@Cur-NPs can precisely target tumor cells in vivo to eradicate tumor cells or induce them apoptosis. PD-1@AS-NPs can precisely target T cells in vivo to activate the T cell-mediated immune system and induce antitumor immune responses. Furthermore, these two nanoparticles have good synergistic effect and show stronger antitumor effect after combination. After treatment with the combination of two nanoparticles, the tumor volumes of C57BL/6 tumor-bearing mice are significantly reduced. Moreover, the percentage of CD8+T cells and CD4+T cells in the tumor significantly increased, and the percentage of regulatory T cells significantly decreased. The percentage of memory T cells and memory effector T cells in the spleen also significantly increased after treatment, suggesting that the antitumor immunity is activated after treatment. This study provides a new antitumor treatment strategy combining chemotherapy and immunotherapy, which has good application prospect.

Unlocking cancer vaccine potential: What are the key factors?

Cancer is a global health challenge, with changing demographics and lifestyle factors producing an increasing burden worldwide. Screening advancements are enabling earlier diagnoses, but current cancer immunotherapies only induce remission in a small proportion of patients and come at a high cost. Cancer vaccines may offer a solution to these challenges, but they have been mired by poor results in past decades. Greater understanding of tumor biology, coupled with the success of vaccine technologies during the COVID-19 pandemic, has reinvigorated cancer vaccine development. With the first signs of efficacy being reported, cancer vaccines may be beginning to fulfill their potential. Solid tumors, however, present different hurdles than infectious diseases. Combining insights from previous cancer vaccine clinical development and contemporary knowledge of tumor immunology, we ask: who are the 'right' patients, what are the 'right' targets, and which are the 'right' modalities to maximize the chances of cancer vaccine success?

Tumor-Associated Carbohydrate Antigen 19-9 (CA 19-9), a Promising Target for Antibody-Based Detection, Diagnosis, and Immunotherapy of Cancer

Carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (CA 19-9) also known as sialyl Lewis A is a tetrasaccharide overexpressed on a wide range of cancerous cells. CA 19-9 has been detected at elevated levels in sera of patients with various types of malignancies, most prominently pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. After its identification in 1979, multiple studies have highlighted the significant roles of CA 19-9 in cancer progression, including facilitating extravasation and eventually metastases, proliferation of cancer cells, and suppression of the immune system. Therefore, CA 19-9 has been considered an attractive target for cancer diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy. This review discusses the synthesis of CA 19-9 antigen, elicitation of antibodies through vaccination, development of anti-CA 19-9 monoclonal antibodies, and their applications as imaging tracers and therapeutics for a variety of CA 19-9-positive cancer.

Tumor cell membrane-based vaccines: A potential boost for cancer immunotherapy

Because therapeutic cancer vaccines can, in theory, eliminate tumor cells specifically with relatively low toxicity, they have long been considered for application in repressing cancer progression. Traditional cancer vaccines containing a single or a few discrete tumor epitopes have failed in the clinic, possibly due to challenges in epitope selection, target downregulation, cancer cell heterogeneity, tumor microenvironment immunosuppression, or a lack of vaccine immunogenicity. Whole cancer cell or cancer membrane vaccines, which provide a rich source of antigens, are emerging as viable alternatives. Autologous and allogenic cellular cancer vaccines have been evaluated as clinical treatments. Tumor cell membranes (TCMs) are an intriguing antigen source, as they provide membrane-accessible targets and, at the same time, serve as integrated carriers of vaccine adjuvants and other therapeutic agents. This review provides a summary of the properties and technologies for TCM cancer vaccines. Characteristics, categories, mechanisms, and preparation methods are discussed, as are the demonstrable additional benefits derived from combining TCM vaccines with chemotherapy, sonodynamic therapy, phototherapy, and oncolytic viruses. Further research in chemistry, biomedicine, cancer immunology, and bioinformatics to address current drawbacks could facilitate the clinical adoption of TCM vaccines.

Turning Cancer Immunotherapy to the Emerging Immune Checkpoint TIGIT: Will This Break Through the Limitations of the Legacy Approach?

The discovery of immune checkpoints (ICs) has pushed cancer treatment into the next era. As an emerging immune checkpoint, the TIGIT/CD155 axis inhibits the cytotoxicity of T and NK cells through multiple pathways. Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) targeting TIGIT are hopefully expected to address the issue of unresponsiveness to anti-PD-(L)1 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) by combination therapy. This paper presents insights on the expression, structure and mechanism of action of TIGIT, as well as the principles and methods of designing mAbs targeting TIGIT and their clinical data. The advantages and disadvantages of targeting TIGIT using mAbs, bispecific and tri-specific antibodies (bsAbs and tsAbs), peptides, and compounds, in addition to potential combination therapies of anti-TIGIT with anti-PD-1 or cancer vaccines, are addressed. Finally, perspectives on current immunotherapies targeting TIGIT are discussed.

Human Papillomavirus-Related Cancer Vaccine Strategies

BACKGROUND

Human papillomavirus (HPV) persistent infection is a major pathogenic factor for HPV-related cancers, such as cervical cancer (CC), vaginal cancer, vulvar cancer, anal cancer, penile cancer, and head and neck cancer (HNC). Since the introduction of the world's first prophylactic HPV vaccine, there has been a decline in the incidence of HPV infections and associated cancers. This article reviews the latest literature on the research progress, efficacy, and safety of HPV vaccines for these cancers, providing a reference for HPV vaccination strategy.

METHODS

By utilizing databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, CNKI, and Wanfang, we conducted a literature search on research papers related to HPV vaccines from 2014 to 2024, employing keywords such as "HPV", "HPV vaccine", "CC", "vaginal cancer", "vulvar cancer", "anal cancer", "penile cancer" and "HNC". Additionally, we reviewed the latest information available on official websites, including the World Health Organization (WHO). Based on the quality and relevance of the papers, we selected over 100 of the most representative articles for further summarization and analysis.

RESULTS

Vaccination against HPV can effectively block the transmission of the virus and prevent HPV-related cancers. Current studies have confirmed the efficacy and safety of prophylactic HPV vaccination. However, numerous challenges remain. The global vaccination rate for preventive vaccines remains low, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Nonetheless, in the future, we can enhance the accessibility, affordability, and coverage of HPV vaccines by expanding the indications of already licensed vaccines, continuously developing new vaccines.

CONCLUSIONS

The HPV vaccine is an extremely effective measure for the prevention and treatment of HPV-related cancers. Although there are many challenges in expanding the coverage of the HPV vaccine. It is believed that in the not-too-distant future, both prophylactic and therapeutic HPV vaccines will achieve commendable results.

Nano- and Micro-Platforms in Therapeutic Proteins Delivery for Cancer Therapy: Materials and Strategies

Proteins have emerged as promising therapeutics in oncology due to their great specificity. Many treatment strategies are developed based on protein biologics, such as immunotherapy, starvation therapy, and pro-apoptosis therapy, while some protein biologics have entered the clinics. However, clinical translation is severely impeded by instability, short circulation time, poor transmembrane transportation, and immunogenicity. Micro- and nano-particles-based drug delivery platforms are designed to solve those problems and enhance protein therapeutic efficacy. This review first summarizes the different types of therapeutic proteins in clinical and research stages, highlighting their administration limitations. Next, various types of micro- and nano-particles are described to demonstrate how they can overcome those limitations. The potential of micro- and nano-particles are then explored to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of proteins by combinational therapies. Finally, the challenges and future directions of protein biologics carriers are discussed for optimized protein delivery.

Recent advances in nanoadjuvant-triggered STING activation for enhanced cancer immunotherapy

The development of effective cancer treatments is a popular in contemporary medical research. Immunotherapy, the fourth most common cancer treatment method, relies on activating autoimmune function to eradicate tumors and exhibits advantages such as a good curative effect and few side effects. In recent years, tumor vaccines that activate the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) pathway are being actively researched in the field of immunotherapy; however, their application is still limited because of the rapid clearance rate of tumor-related lymph nodes and low efficiency of antigen presentation. The rise of nanomedicine has provided new opportunities for solving these problems. By preparing materials with adjuvant effects nanoparticles, the small size of nanoparticles can be exploited to enable the entry of vaccines into tumor-related lymph nodes to accurately deliver STING agonists and activate the immune response. Based on this, this paper reviews various types of nano-adjuvants based on metals, platinum chemotherapy drugs, camptothecin derivatives, deoxyribonucleic acid, etc. and highlights the transformation prospects of these nano-adjuvants in tumor vaccines to provide a reference for promoting the development of nano-medicine and tumor vaccinology.

Feature Selection Enhances Peptide Binding Predictions for TCR-Specific Interactions

T-cell receptors (TCRs) play a critical role in the immune response by recognizing specific ligand peptides presented by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Accurate prediction of peptide binding to TCRs is essential for advancing immunotherapy, vaccine design, and understanding mechanisms of autoimmune disorders. This study presents a novel theoretical method that explores the impact of feature selection techniques on enhancing the predictive accuracy of peptide binding models tailored for specific TCRs. To evaluate the universality of our approach across different TCR systems, we utilized a dataset that includes peptide libraries tested against three distinct murine TCRs. A broad range of physicochemical properties, including amino acid composition, dipeptide composition, and tripeptide features, were integrated into the machine learning-based feature selection framework to identify key features contributing to binding affinity. Our analysis reveals that leveraging optimized feature subsets not only simplifies the model complexity but also enhances predictive performance, enabling more precise identification of TCR-peptide interactions. The results of our feature selection method are consistent with findings from hybrid approaches that utilize both sequence and structural data as input as well as experimental data. Our theoretical approach highlights the role of feature selection in peptide-TCR interactions, providing a powerful tool for uncovering the molecular mechanisms of the T-cell response and assisting in the design of more advanced targeted therapeutics.

Advances and applications of RNA vaccines in tumor treatment

Compared to other types of tumor vaccines, RNA vaccines have emerged as promising alternatives to conventional vaccine therapy due to their high efficiency, rapid development capability, and potential for low-cost manufacturing and safe drug delivery. RNA vaccines mainly include mRNA, circular RNA (circRNA), and Self-amplifying mRNA(SAM). Different RNA vaccine platforms for different tumors have shown encouraging results in animal and human models. This review comprehensively describes the advances and applications of RNA vaccines in antitumor therapy. Future directions for extending this promising vaccine platform to a wide range of therapeutic uses are also discussed.

Prodrugs of paclitaxel improve in situ photo-vaccination

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) effectively kills cancer cells and initiates immune responses that promote anticancer effects locally and systemically. Primarily developed for local and regional cancers, the potential of PDT for systemic antitumor effects [in situ photo-vaccination (ISPV)] remains underexplored. This study investigates: (1) the comparative effectiveness of paclitaxel (PTX) prodrug [Pc-(L-PTX)2] for PDT and site-specific PTX effects versus its pseudo-prodrug [Pc-(NCL-PTX)2] for PDT combined with checkpoint inhibitors; (2) mechanisms driving systemic antitumor effects; and (3) the prophylactic impact on preventing cancer recurrence. A bilateral tumor model was established in BALB/c mice through subcutaneous injection of CT26 cells. Mice received the PTX prodrug (0.5 μmole kg-1, i.v.), and tumors were treated with a 690-nm laser (75 mW cm-2 for 30 min, drug-light interval 0.5 h, light does 135 J cm-1), followed by anti-CTLA-4 (100 μg dose-1, i.p.) on days 1, 4, and 7. Notable enhancement in both local and systemic antitumor effectiveness was observed with [Pc-(L-PTX)2] compared to [Pc-(NCL-PTX)2] with checkpoint inhibitor. Immune cell depletion and immunohistochemistry confirmed neutrophils and CD8+ T cells are effectors for systemic antitumor effects. Treatment-induced immune memory resisted newly rechallenged CT26, showcasing prophylactic benefits. ISPV with a PTX prodrug and anti-CTLA-4 is a promising approach for treating metastatic cancers and preventing recurrence.

Breast cancer immunotherapy: Realities and advances

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignant tumor and the main cause of death in women worldwide. With increased knowledge regarding tumor escape mechanisms and advances in immunology, many new antitumor strategies such as nonspecific immunotherapies, monoclonal antibodies, anticancer vaccines, and oncolytic viruses, among others, make immunotherapy a promising approach for the treatment of BC. However, these approaches still require meticulous assessment and readjustment as resistance and modest response rates remain important barriers. In this article, we aim to summarize the most recent data available in BC immunotherapy to include the results of ongoing clinical trials and approved therapies used as monotherapies or in combination with conventional treatments.

A comprehensive review on microbial diversity and anticancer compounds derived from seaweed endophytes: a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic approach

Seaweed endophytes are a rich source of microbial diversity and bioactive compounds. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the microbial diversity associated with seaweeds and their interaction between them. These diverse bacteria and fungi have distinct metabolic pathways, which result in the synthesis of bioactive compounds with potential applications in a variety of health fields. We examine many types of seaweed-associated microorganisms, their bioactive metabolites, and their potential role in cancer treatment using a comprehensive literature review. By incorporating recent findings, we hope to highlight the importance of seaweed endophytes as a prospective source of novel anticancer drugs and promote additional studies in this area. We also investigate the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles of these bioactive compounds because understanding their absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion (ADMET), and toxicity profiles is critical for developing bioactive compounds with anticancer potential into effective cancer drugs. This knowledge ensures the safety and efficacy of proposed medications prior to clinical trials. This study not only provides promise for novel and more effective treatments for cancer with fewer side effects, but it also emphasizes the necessity of sustainable harvesting procedures and ethical considerations for protecting the delicate marine ecology during bioprospecting activities.

Cancer immunotherapy of Wilms tumor: a narrative review

Wilms tumor (WT) is the most common malignant tumor of the urinary system in children. Though the traditional treatment of surgery plus radiotherapy and chemotherapy achieves exciting clinical efficacy, in relapsed and refractory cases, the long-term overall survival rates are poor. Besides, chemotherapy and radiation have serious long-term toxic side effects on children. Cancer immunotherapy is a new tumor therapy that works by activating the body's immune system to allow immune cells to kill tumor cells more efficiently. Currently, cancer immunotherapy has been tested in clinical trials or basic studies in WT. This article reviews the current status of clinical trials and basic research of cancer immunotherapy in WT to promote the application of cancer immunotherapy in WT patients.

Role of N6-methyladenosine RNA modification in cancer

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is the most abundant modification of RNA in eukaryotic cells. Previous studies have shown that m6A is pivotal in diverse diseases especially cancer. m6A corelates with the initiation, progression, resistance, invasion, and metastasis of cancer. However, despite these insights, a comprehensive understanding of its specific roles and mechanisms within the complex landscape of cancer is still elusive. This review begins by outlining the key regulatory proteins of m6A modification and their posttranslational modifications (PTMs), as well as the role in chromatin accessibility and transcriptional activity within cancer cells. Additionally, it highlights that m6A modifications impact cancer progression by modulating programmed cell death mechanisms and affecting the tumor microenvironment through various cancer-associated immune cells. Furthermore, the review discusses how microorganisms can induce enduring epigenetic changes and oncogenic effect in microorganism-associated cancers by altering m6A modifications. Last, it delves into the role of m6A modification in cancer immunotherapy, encompassing RNA therapy, immune checkpoint blockade, cytokine therapy, adoptive cell transfer therapy, and direct targeting of m6A regulators. Overall, this review clarifies the multifaceted role of m6A modification in cancer and explores targeted therapies aimed at manipulating m6A modification, aiming to advance cancer research and improve patient outcomes.

Nine Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) Class I Alleles are Omnipotent Against 11 Antigens Expressed in Melanoma Tumors

Objective

Host immunogenetics (Human Leukocyte Antigen, HLA) play a critical role in the human immune response to melanoma, influencing both melanoma prevalence and immunotherapy outcomes. Beneficial outcomes hinge on the successful binding of epitopes of melanoma antigens to HLA Class I molecules for an effective engagement of cytotoxic CD8+ lymphocytes and subsequent elimination of the cancerous cell. This study evaluated the binding affinity and immunogenicity of HLA Class I to melanoma tumor antigens to identify alleles best suited to facilitate elimination of melanoma antigens.

Methods

In this study, we used freely available software tools to determine in silico the binding affinity and immunogenicity of 2462 reported HLA Class I alleles to all linear nonamer epitopes of 11 known antigens expressed in melanoma tumors (TRP2, S100, Tyrosinase, TRP1, PMEL(17), MAGE1, MAGE4, CTA, BAGE, GAGE/SSX2, Melan).

Results

We identified the following 9 HLA Class I alleles with very high immunogenicity and binding affinity against all 11 melanoma antigens: A*02:14, B*07:10, B*35:10, B*40:10, B*40:12, B*44:10, C*07:11, and C*07:13, and C*07:14.

Conclusion

These 9 HLA alleles possess the potential to aid in the elimination of melanoma both by themselves and by enhancing the beneficial effect of immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Revolutionizing adjuvant development: harnessing AI for next-generation cancer vaccines

With the COVID-19 pandemic, the importance of vaccines has been widely recognized and has led to increased research and development efforts. Vaccines also play a crucial role in cancer treatment by activating the immune system to target and destroy cancer cells. However, enhancing the efficacy of cancer vaccines remains a challenge. Adjuvants, which enhance the immune response to antigens and improve vaccine effectiveness, have faced limitations in recent years, resulting in few novel adjuvants being identified. The advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) technology in drug development has provided a foundation for adjuvant screening and application, leading to a diversification of adjuvants. This article reviews the significant role of tumor vaccines in basic research and clinical treatment and explores the use of AI technology to screen novel adjuvants from databases. The findings of this review offer valuable insights for the development of new adjuvants for next-generation vaccines.

Efficacy of novel allogeneic cancer cells vaccine to treat colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a significant global health burden, emphasizing the need for innovative treatment strategies. 95% of the CRC population are microsatellite stable (MSS), insensitive to classical immunotherapies such as anti-PD-1; on the other hand, responders can become resistant and relapse. Recently, the use of cancer vaccines enhanced the immune response against tumor cells. In this context, we developed a therapeutic vaccine based on Stimulated Tumor Cells (STC) platform technology. This vaccine is composed of selected tumor cell lines stressed and haptenated in vitro to generate a factory of immunogenic cancer-related antigens validated by a proteomic cross analysis with patient's biopsies. This technology allows a multi-specific education of the immune system to target tumor cells harboring resistant clones. Here, we report safety and antitumor efficacy of the murine version of the STC vaccine on CT26 BALB/c CRC syngeneic murine models. We showed that one cell line (1CL)-based STC vaccine suppressed tumor growth and extended survival. In addition, three cell lines (3CL)-based STC vaccine significantly improves these parameters by presenting additional tumor-related antigens inducing a multi-specific anti-tumor immune response. Furthermore, proteomic analyses validated that the 3CL-based STC vaccine represents a wider quality range of tumor-related proteins than the 1CL-based STC vaccine covering key categories of tumor antigens related to tumor plasticity and treatment resistance. We also evaluated the efficacy of STC vaccine in an MC38 anti-PD-1 resistant syngeneic murine model. Vaccination with the 3CL-based STC vaccine significantly improved survival and showed a confirmed complete response with an antitumor activity carried by the increase of CD8+ lymphocyte T cells and M1 macrophage infiltration. These results demonstrate the potential of this technology to produce human vaccines for the treatment of patients with CRC.

RNA vaccines for cancer: Principles to practice

Vaccines are the most impactful medicines to improve health. Though potent against pathogens, vaccines for cancer remain an unfulfilled promise. However, recent advances in RNA technology coupled with scientific and clinical breakthroughs have spurred rapid discovery and potent delivery of tumor antigens at speed and scale, transforming cancer vaccines into a tantalizing prospect. Yet, despite being at a pivotal juncture, with several randomized clinical trials maturing in upcoming years, several critical questions remain: which antigens, tumors, platforms, and hosts can trigger potent immunity with clinical impact? Here, we address these questions with a principled framework of cancer vaccination from antigen detection to delivery. With this framework, we outline features of emergent RNA technology that enable rapid, robust, real-time vaccination with somatic mutation-derived neoantigens-an emerging "ideal" antigen class-and highlight latent features that have sparked the belief that RNA could realize the enduring vision for vaccines against cancer.

Recent advances in the development of poly(ester amide)s-based carriers for drug delivery

Biodegradable and biocompatible biomaterials have several important applications in drug delivery. The biomaterial family known as poly(ester amide)s (PEAs) has garnered considerable interest because it exhibits the benefits of both polyester and polyamide, as well as production from readily available raw ingredients and sophisticated synthesis techniques. Specifically, α-amino acid-based PEAs (AA-PEAs) are promising carriers because of their structural flexibility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. Herein, we summarize the latest applications of PEAs in drug delivery systems, including antitumor, gene therapy, and protein drugs, and discuss the prospects of drug delivery based on PEAs, which provides a reference for designing safe and efficient drug delivery carriers.

Unlocking the adenosine receptor mechanism of the tumour immune microenvironment

The suppressive tumour microenvironment significantly hinders the efficacy of immunotherapy in treating solid tumors. In this context, stromal cells, such as tumour-associated fibroblasts, undergo changes that include an increase in the number and function of immunosuppressive cells. Adenosine, a factor that promotes tumour growth, is produced from ATP breakdown and is markedly elevated in the tumour microenvironment. It acts through specific binding to adenosine receptors, with A2A and A2B adenosine receptor being primary drivers of immunosuppression. This paper presents the roles of various adenosine receptors in different tumour microenvironments. This review focus on the function of adenosine receptors in the stromal cells and non-cellular components of the tumour microenvironment. Additionally, we summarize and discuss recent advances and potential trends in using adenosine receptor antagonists combined with immunotherapy.

Empowering standardization of cancer vaccines through ontology: enhanced modeling and data analysis

BACKGROUND

The exploration of cancer vaccines has yielded a multitude of studies, resulting in a diverse collection of information. The heterogeneity of cancer vaccine data significantly impedes effective integration and analysis. While CanVaxKB serves as a pioneering database for over 670 manually annotated cancer vaccines, it is important to distinguish that a database, on its own, does not offer the structured relationships and standardized definitions found in an ontology. Recognizing this, we expanded the Vaccine Ontology (VO) to include those cancer vaccines present in CanVaxKB that were not initially covered, enhancing VO's capacity to systematically define and interrelate cancer vaccines.

RESULTS

An ontology design pattern (ODP) was first developed and applied to semantically represent various cancer vaccines, capturing their associated entities and relations. By applying the ODP, we generated a cancer vaccine template in a tabular format and converted it into the RDF/OWL format for generation of cancer vaccine terms in the VO. '12MP vaccine' was used as an example of cancer vaccines to demonstrate the application of the ODP. VO also reuses reference ontology terms to represent entities such as cancer diseases and vaccine hosts. Description Logic (DL) and SPARQL query scripts were developed and used to query for cancer vaccines based on different vaccine's features and to demonstrate the versatility of the VO representation. Additionally, ontological modeling was applied to illustrate cancer vaccine related concepts and studies for in-depth cancer vaccine analysis. A cancer vaccine-specific VO view, referred to as "CVO," was generated, and it contains 928 classes including 704 cancer vaccines. The CVO OWL file is publicly available on: http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/vo/cvo.owl , for sharing and applications.

CONCLUSION

To facilitate the standardization, integration, and analysis of cancer vaccine data, we expanded the Vaccine Ontology (VO) to systematically model and represent cancer vaccines. We also developed a pipeline to automate the inclusion of cancer vaccines and associated terms in the VO. This not only enriches the data's standardization and integration, but also leverages ontological modeling to deepen the analysis of cancer vaccine information, maximizing benefits for researchers and clinicians.

AVAILABILITY

The VO-cancer GitHub website is: https://github.com/vaccineontology/VO/tree/master/CVO .

Advances of ultrasound in tumor immunotherapy

Immunotherapy has become a revolutionary method for treating tumors, offering new hope to cancer patients worldwide. Immunotherapy strategies such as checkpoint inhibitors, chimeric antigen receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy, and cancer vaccines have shown significant potential in clinical trials. Despite the promising results, there are still limitations that impede the overall effectiveness of immunotherapy; the response to immunotherapy is uneven, the response rate of patients is still low, and systemic immune toxicity accompanied with tumor cell immune evasion is common. Ultrasound technology has evolved rapidly in recent years and has become a significant player in tumor immunotherapy. The introductions of high intensity focused ultrasound and ultrasound-stimulated microbubbles have opened doors for new therapeutic strategies in the fight against tumor. This paper explores the revolutionary advancements of ultrasound combined with immunotherapy in this particular field.

Immune landscape and response to oncolytic virus-based immunotherapy

Oncolytic virus (OV)-based immunotherapy has emerged as a promising strategy for cancer treatment, offering a unique potential to selectively target malignant cells while sparing normal tissues. However, the immunosuppressive nature of tumor microenvironment (TME) poses a substantial hurdle to the development of OVs as effective immunotherapeutic agents, as it restricts the activation and recruitment of immune cells. This review elucidates the potential of OV-based immunotherapy in modulating the immune landscape within the TME to overcome immune resistance and enhance antitumor immune responses. We examine the role of OVs in targeting specific immune cell populations, including dendritic cells, T cells, natural killer cells, and macrophages, and their ability to alter the TME by inhibiting angiogenesis and reducing tumor fibrosis. Additionally, we explore strategies to optimize OV-based drug delivery and improve the efficiency of OV-mediated immunotherapy. In conclusion, this review offers a concise and comprehensive synopsis of the current status and future prospects of OV-based immunotherapy, underscoring its remarkable potential as an effective immunotherapeutic agent for cancer treatment.

Emerging advances in delivery systems for mRNA cancer vaccines

The success of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) in treating COVID-19 promotes further research of mRNA vaccines for cancer vaccination. Aiming at overcoming the constraints of currently available mRNA carriers, various alternative nano-vectors have been developed for delivering tumor antigen encoding mRNA and showed versatility to induce potent anti-tumor immunity. The rationally designed nano-vaccines increase the immune activation capacity of the mRNA vaccines by promoting crucial aspects including mRNA stability, cellular uptake, endosomal escape and targeting of immune cells or organs. Herein, we summarized the research progress of various mRNA based nano-vaccines that have been reported for cancer vaccination, including LNPs, lipid enveloped hybrid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles etc. Several strategies that have been reported for further enhancing the immune stimulation efficacy of mRNA nano-vaccines, including developing nano-vaccines for co-delivering adjuvants, combination of immune checkpoint inhibitors, and optimizing the injection routes for boosting immune responses, have been reviewed. The progress of mRNA nano-vaccines in clinical trials and the prospect of the mRNA vaccines for cancer vaccination are also discussed.

A review of lactate-lactylation in malignancy: its potential in immunotherapy

Lactic acid was formerly regarded as a byproduct of metabolism. However, extensive investigations into the intricacies of cancer development have revealed its significant contributions to tumor growth, migration, and invasion. Post-translational modifications involving lactate have been widely observed in histone and non-histone proteins, and these modifications play a crucial role in regulating gene expression by covalently attaching lactoyl groups to lysine residues in proteins. This discovery has greatly enhanced our comprehension of lactic acid's involvement in disease pathogenesis. In this article, we provide a comprehensive review of the intricate relationship between lactate and tumor immunity, the occurrence of lactylation in malignant tumors, and the exploitation of targeted lactate-lactylation in tumor immunotherapy. Additionally, we discuss future research directions, aiming to offer novel insights that could inform the investigation, diagnosis, and treatment of related diseases.

Advancements and prospects of lipid-based nanoparticles: dual frontiers in cancer treatment and vaccine development

Cancer is a complex heterogeneous disease that poses a significant public health challenge. In recent years, lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) have expanded drug delivery and vaccine development options owing to their adaptable, non-toxic, tuneable physicochemical properties, versatile surface functionalisation, and biocompatibility. LBNPs are tiny artificial structures composed of lipid-like materials that can be engineered to encapsulate and deliver therapeutic agents with pinpoint accuracy. They have been widely explored in oncology; however, our understanding of their pharmacological mechanisms, effects of their composition, charge, and size on cellular uptake, tumour penetration, and how they can be utilised to develop cancer vaccines is still limited. Hence, we reviewed LBNPs' unique characteristics, biochemical features, and tumour-targeting mechanisms. Furthermore, we examined their ability to enhance cancer therapies and their potential contribution in developing anticancer vaccines. We critically analysed their advantages and challenges impeding swift advancements in oncology and highlighted promising avenues for future research.

Therapeutic vulnerabilities in triple negative breast cancer: Stem-like traits explored within molecular classification

Triple Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive type of breast cancer (BC). Despite advances in the clinical management of TNBC, recurrence-related mortality remains a challenge. The stem-like phenotype of TNBC plays a significant role in the persistence of minimal disease residue after therapy. Individuals exhibiting stem-like characteristics are particularly prone to inducing malignant relapse accompanied by strong resistance. Therefore, stem-like traits have been broadly proposed as therapeutic vulnerabilities to treat TNBC and reduce recurrence. However, heterogeneity within TNBC often generally restricts the stability of the therapeutic efficacy. To understand the heterogeneity and manage TNBC more precisely, multiple TNBC subtyping categories have been reported, providing the basis for profile-according therapeutic regimens. To provide more insight into targeting stem-like traits to ablate TNBC and reduce recurrence in the context of heterogeneity, this paper reviewed the molecular subtyping of TNBC, identified the consensus subtypes with distinct stem-like phenotypes, characterized the stemness hierarchy of TNBC, outlined the biological models for stem-like TNBC subtypes, summarized the therapeutic vulnerabilities in stem-like traits of the subtypes, and proposed potential therapeutic regimens targeting stem-like characteristics to improve TNBC prognosis.

Nanodrug Delivery Systems in Antitumor Immunotherapy

Cancer has become one of the most important factors threatening human health, and the global cancer burden has been increasing rapidly. Immunotherapy has become another clinical research hotspot after surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy because of its high efficiency and tumor metastasis prevention. However, problems such as lower immune response rate and immune-related adverse reaction in the clinical application of immunotherapy need to be urgently solved. With the development of nanodrug delivery systems, various nanocarrier materials have been used in the research of antitumor immunotherapy with encouraging therapeutic results. In this review, we mainly summarized the combination of nanodrug delivery systems and immunotherapy from the following 4 aspects: (a) nanodrug delivery systems combined with cytokine therapy to improve cytokines delivery in vivo; (b) nanodrug delivery systems provided a suitable platform for the combination of immune checkpoint blockade therapy with other tumor treatments; (c) nanodrug delivery systems helped deliver antigens and adjuvants for tumor vaccines to enhance immune effects; and (d) nanodrug delivery systems improved tumor treatment efficiency and reduced toxicity for adoptive cell therapy. Nanomaterials chosen by researchers to construct nanodrug delivery systems and their function were also introduced in detail. Finally, we discussed the current challenges and future prospects in combining nanodrug delivery systems with immunotherapy.

Biomimetic nanotechnology for cancer immunotherapy: State of the art and future perspective

Cancer continues to be a significant worldwide cause of mortality. This underscores the urgent need for novel strategies to complement and overcome the limitations of conventional therapies, such as imprecise targeting and drug resistance. Cancer Immunotherapy utilizes the body's immune system to target malignant cells, reducing harm to healthy tissue. Nevertheless, the efficacy of immunotherapy exhibits variation across individuals and has the potential to induce autoimmune responses. Biomimetic nanoparticles (bNPs) have transformative potential in cancer immunotherapy, promising improved accurate targeting, immune system activation, and resistance mechanisms, while also reducing the occurrence of systemic autoimmune side effects. This integration offers opportunities for personalized medicine and better therapeutic outcomes. Despite considerable potential, bNPs face barriers like insufficient targeting, restricted biological stability, and interactions within the tumor microenvironment. The resolution of these concerns is crucial in order to expedite the integration of bNPs from the research setting into clinical therapeutic uses. In addition, optimizing manufacturing processes and reducing bNP-related costs are essential for practical implementation. The present research introduces comprehensive classifications of bNPs as well as recent achievements in their application in cancer immunotherapies, emphasizing the need to address barriers for swift clinical integration.

HER2+ advanced gastric cancer: Current state and opportunities (Review)

Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)+ gastric cancer (GC) is a distinct subtype of GC, accounting for 10‑20% of all cases of GC. Although the development of the anti‑HER2 monoclonal antibody trastuzumab has markedly improved response rates and prognosis of patients with HER2+ advanced GC (AGC), drug resistance remains a considerable challenge. Therefore, dynamic monitoring of HER2 expression levels can facilitate the identification of patients who may benefit from targeted therapy. Besides trastuzumab, DS‑8201 and RC48 have been applied in the treatment of HER2+ AGC, and several novel anti‑HER2 therapies are undergoing preclinical/clinical trials. At present, combination immunotherapy with anti‑HER2 agents is used as the first‑line treatment of this disease subtype. New promising approaches such as chimeric antigen receptor T‑cell immunotherapy and cancer vaccines are also being investigated for their potential to improve clinical outcomes. The current review provides new insights that will guide the future application of anti‑HER2 therapy by summarizing research progress on targeted therapy drugs for HER2+ AGC and combination treatments.