Virologic Diagnosis, Viral Monitoring, and Treatment of Epstein-Barr Virus Infectious Mononucleosis

Hemolytic Anemia Linked to Epstein-Barr Virus Infectious Mononucleosis: A Systematic Review of the Literature

Background: In Epstein-Barr virus infectious mononucleosis, hemolytic anemia occasionally occurs. Methods: To characterize hemolytic anemia linked to Epstein-Barr virus infectious mononucleosis, we performed a systematic review (PROSPERO CRD42024597183) in the United States National Library of Medicine, Excerpta Medica, and Web of Science with no restrictions on language. Only reports published since 1970 were included. Eligible were reports describing hemolytic anemia in subjects with clinical signs and microbiological markers of Epstein-Barr virus mononucleosis. Results: In the literature, we detected 56 reports released between 1973 and 2024, documenting 60 individuals (32 females and 28 males; 27 children and 33 adults) with hemolytic anemia linked to Epstein-Barr virus infectious mononucleosis. The mechanism underlying anemia was categorized as cold-antibody-mediated (N = 31; 52%), warm-antibody-mediated (N = 18, 30%), mixed warm- and cold-antibody-mediated (N = 4; 6.7%), or paroxysmal cold hemoglobinuria (N = 2; 3.3%). The remaining 5 cases (8.3%) remained unclassified. Observation alone was the chosen approach in 23% of cases (N = 14). Steroids (67%; N = 40) and blood transfusions (38%; N = 23) were the most commonly used treatment, while plasma exchange, intravenous polyclonal immunoglobulin, rituximab, and splenectomy were used less frequently. Observation was slightly but significantly (p = 0.032) more common in cases of cold-antibody-mediated anemia compared to all other cases combined. Patients recovered a median of 28 [interquartile range 21-39] days after disease onset. Two patients with warm-antibody-mediated hemolytic anemia died. Conclusions: This literature review points out that Epstein-Barr virus, like Mycoplasma pneumoniae, cytomegalovirus, or severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, may act as a trigger for immune-mediated hemolytic anemia.

A customizable multiplex protein microarray for antibody testing and its application for tick-borne and other infectious diseases

Tick-borne infections are the most common vector-borne diseases in the USA. Ticks harbor and transmit several infections with Lyme disease being the most common tickborne infection in the US and Europe. Lack of awareness about tick populations, specific diagnostic tests, and overlapping signs and symptoms of tick-borne infections can often lead to misdiagnosis affecting treatment and the prevalence data reported especially for non-Lyme tick-borne infections. The diagnostic tests currently available for tick-borne diseases are severely limited in their ability to provide accurate results and cannot detect multiple pathogens in a single run. The multiplex protein microarray developed at Vibrant was designed to detect multiple serological antibodies thereby detecting exposure to multiple pathogens simultaneously. Our microarray in its present form can accommodate 400 antigens (molecules that can bind to specific antibodies) and can multiplex across antigen types, whole cell lysates, recombinant proteins, and peptides. A designed array containing multiple antigens of several microbes including Borrelia burgdorferi, the Lyme disease spirochete, was manufactured and evaluated. The immunoglobulin M (IgM) and G (IgG) responses against several tick-borne microbes and other infectious agents were analyzed for analytical and clinical performance. The microarray improved IgM and IgG sensitivities and specificities of individual microbes when compared with the respective gold standards. The testing was also performed in a single run in comparison to multiple runs needed for comparable testing standards. In summary, our study presents a flexible multiplex microarray platform that can provide quick results with high sensitivity and specificity for evaluating exposure to varied infectious agents especially tick-borne pathogens.

From the midfacial destructive drama to the unfolding EBV story: a short history of EBV-positive NK-cell and T-cell lymphoproliferative diseases

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous gammaherpesvirus that has been related to oncogenesis of lymphoid and epithelial malignancies. Although the mechanism of EBV infection of NK and T cells remains enigmatic, it plays a pathogenic role in various EBV+ NK-cell and T-cell lymphoproliferative diseases (LPDs), through promotion of cell activation pathways, inhibition of cell apoptotic pathways, behaving as oncogenes, interacting with host oncogenes or acting epigenetically. The study of NK-cell LPDs, previously hampered by the lack of immunophenotypical and genotypical criteria of NK cells, has become feasible with the recently accepted criteria. EBV+ NK- and T-cell LPDs are mostly of poor prognosis. This review delivers a short history from primeval to recent EBV+ NK- and T-cell LPDs in non-immunocompromised subjects, coupled with increasing interest, and work on the biological and oncogenic roles of EBV.

Recent Advances in Diagnostic Approaches for Epstein-Barr Virus

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is the causative agent of many diseases including infectious mononucleosis (IM), and it is associated with different subtypes of lymphoma, sarcoma and carcinoma such as Hodgkin's lymphoma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, and gastric carcinoma. With the advent of improved laboratory tests for EBV, a timelier and accurate diagnosis could be made to aid better prognosis and effective treatment. For histopathological lesions, the in situ hybridization (ISH) of EBV-encoded RNA (EBER) in biopsy tissues remains the gold standard for detecting EBV. Methods such as the heterophile antibody test, immunofluorescence assays, enzyme immunoassays, Western blot, and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are also employed in the detection of EBV in different types of samples. The determination of EBV viral load using PCR, however, is gaining more prominence in the diagnosis of EBV-associated diseases. Given the challenge of false positive/negative results that are sometimes experienced during the detection of EBV, variability in results from different laboratories, and the impact of factors such as sample type and the immunological status of patients from whom samples are collected, the need to critically examine these present methods is invaluable. This review thus presents current advances in the detection of EBV, detailing the advantages and disadvantages of the various techniques. In addition, fundamental virological concepts are highlighted to enhance the greater understanding, the proper application, and the interpretation of EBV tests.

Exercise and the Athlete With Infectious Mononucleosis

OBJECTIVE

To determine appropriate management of the active individual with infectious mononucleosis (IM), including issues of diagnosis, the determination of splenomegaly, and other measures of disease status, the relationship of the disease to chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS), and the risks of exercise at various points in the disease process.

DATA SOURCES

An Ovid/MEDLINE search (January 1996-June 2015) was widely supplemented by "similar articles" found in Ovid/MEDLINE and PubMed, reference lists, and personal files.

MAIN RESULTS

Clinical diagnoses of IM are unreliable. Traditional laboratory indicators (lymphocytosis, abnormal lymphocytes, and a heterophile-positive slide test) can be supplemented by more sensitive and more specific but also more costly Epstein-Barr antigen determinations. Clinical estimates of splenomegaly are fallible. Laboratory determinations, commonly by 2D ultrasonography, must take account of methodology, the formulae used in calculations and the individual's body size. The SD of normal values matches the typical increase of size in IM, but repeat measurements can help to monitor regression of the disease. The main risks to the athlete are spontaneous splenic rupture (seen in 0.1%-0.5% of patients and signaled by acute abdominal pain) and progression to chronic fatigue, best avoided by 3 to 4 weeks of restricted activity followed by graded reconditioning. A full recovery of athletic performance is usual with 2 to 3 months of conservative management.

CONCLUSIONS

Infectious mononucleosis is a common issue for young athletes. But given accurate diagnosis and the avoidance of splenic rupture and progression to CFS through a few weeks of restricted activity, long-term risks to the health of athletes are few.

Acute cholestatic hepatitis induced by Epstein-Barr virus infection in an adult: a case report

Background

Acute cholestatic hepatitis without features of infectious mononucleosis is a rare presentation of primary Epstein–Barr infection, with only several cases previously reported in the medical literature. Early investigation for Epstein–Barr virus in febrile patients with deranged liver function tests and no demonstrable biliary obstruction on imaging can expedite both diagnosis and treatment, thereby avoiding costly or invasive procedures such as liver biopsy.

Case presentation

A 59-year-old white woman of Anglo-Saxon descent presenting with a febrile illness was noted to have a cholestatic picture of deranged liver function tests. Over the following week a progressive obstructive jaundice developed, with no evidence of choledocholithiasis on ultrasound or magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography. Specific immunoglobulin M antibodies against Epstein–Barr virus were detected in her serum and the diagnosis of Epstein–Barr hepatitis was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction testing. Supportive treatment was implemented and her liver function had normalized 3 months after presentation.

Conclusions

Epstein–Barr virus is associated with a wide variety of clinical manifestations and can present as cholestatic hepatitis with or without features of infectious mononucleosis. While the diagnosis is often suggested by serological testing, Epstein–Barr virus polymerase chain reaction is a new non-invasive laboratory study that can help identify infection in cases where the clinical presentation is atypical.

Epstein-Barr virus: dermatologic associations and implications: part I. Mucocutaneous manifestations of Epstein-Barr virus and nonmalignant disorders

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous virus that has been implicated in a wide range of human diseases, many of which have mucocutaneous manifestations. As a member of the herpesviridae family, EBV causes lifelong infection by establishing latency in B lymphocytes. An intact immune response is critical in preventing progression of EBV disease, and the clinical manifestations of infection are dependent on the intricate relationship between virus and host immune system. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the epidemiology, pathophysiology, and diagnostic testing in EBV infection. In part I of this continuing medical education article, the mucocutaneous manifestations of EBV infection are reviewed with an emphasis on pathophysiology and management.

Fulminant Epstein-Barr virus - infectious mononucleosis in an adult with liver failure, splenic rupture, and spontaneous esophageal bleeding with ensuing esophageal necrosis: a case report

Introduction

Infectious mononucleosis is a clinical syndrome most commonly associated with primary Epstein-Barr virus infection. The majority of patients with infectious mononucleosis recovers without apparent sequelae. However, infectious mononucleosis may be associated with several acute complications. In this report we present a rare case of esophageal rupture that has never been described in the literature before.

Case presentation

We present the case of an 18-year-old Caucasian man affected by severe infectious mononucleosis complicated by fulminant hepatic failure, splenic rupture and esophageal necrosis.

Conclusions

Although primary Epstein-Barr virus infection is rarely fatal, fulminant infection may occur - in this case leading to hepatic failure, splenic rupture and esophageal necrosis, subsequently making several surgical interventions necessary. We show here that infectious mononucleosis is not only a strictly medical condition, but can also lead to severe surgical complications.

Is multiple sclerosis an autoimmune disease?

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) with varied clinical presentations and heterogeneous histopathological features. The underlying immunological abnormalities in MS lead to various neurological and autoimmune manifestations. There is strong evidence that MS is, at least in part, an immune-mediated disease. There is less evidence that MS is a classical autoimmune disease, even though many authors state this in the description of the disease. We show the evidence that both supports and refutes the autoimmune hypothesis. In addition, we present an alternate hypothesis based on virus infection to explain the pathogenesis of MS.

Serological diagnosis of Epstein-Barr virus infection: Problems and solutions

Serological tests for antibodies specific for Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) antigens are frequently used to define infection status and for the differential diagnosis of other pathogens responsible for mononucleosis syndrome. Using only three parameters [viral capsid antigen (VCA) IgG, VCA IgM and EBV nuclear antigen (EBNA)-1 IgG],it is normally possible to distinguish acute from past infection: the presence of VCA IgM and VCA IgG without EBNA-1 IgG indicates acute infection, whereas the presence of VCA IgG and EBNA-1 IgG without VCA IgM is typical of past infection. However, serological findings may sometimes be difficult to interpret as VCA IgG can be present without VCA IgM or EBNA-1 IgG in cases of acute or past infection, or all the three parameters may be detected simultaneously in the case of recent infection or during the course of reactivation. A profile of isolated EBNA-1 IgG may also create some doubts. In order to interpret these patterns correctly, it is necessary to determine IgG avidity, identify anti-EBV IgG and IgM antibodies by immunoblotting, and look for heterophile antibodies, anti-EA (D) antibodies or viral genome using molecular biology methods. These tests make it possible to define the status of the infection and solve any problems that may arise in routine laboratory practice.

Evidence for the role of B cells and immunoglobulins in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis

The pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) remains elusive. Recent reports advocate greater involvement of B cells and immunoglobulins in the initiation and propagation of MS lesions at different stages of their ontogeny. The key role of B cells and immunoglobulins in pathogenesis was initially identified by studies in which patients whose fulminant attacks of demyelination did not respond to steroids experienced remarkable functional improvement following plasma exchange. The positive response to Rituximab in Phase II clinical trials of relapsing-remitting MS confirms the role of B cells. The critical question is how B cells contribute to MS. In this paper, we discuss both the deleterious and the beneficial roles of B cells and immunoglobulins in MS lesions. We provide alternative hypotheses to explain both damaging and protective antibody responses.