Arterial Thrombosis in Patients with Cancer

Arterial Thrombosis in Patients with Cancer

Patients with cancer are at increased risk of arterial thromboembolic disease due to the presence of risk factors common to both the development of cancer and arterial thrombosis, the cancer itself, and the treatments provided to treat cancer. We review here the epidemiology and pathophysiology of arterial thromboembolic disease in cancer, along with its prevention and treatment strategies. We also propose a generalized approach for the management of arterial thromboembolic disease in this patient population.

Socioeconomic and Ethnic Disparities in the Process of Care and Outcomes Among Cancer Patients With Acute Coronary Syndrome

Cancer and acute coronary syndrome (ACS) are the leading causes of morbidity and mortality globally, with many shared risk factors. There are several challenges to the management of patients with cancer presenting with ACS, owing to their higher baseline risk profile, the complexities of their cancer-related therapies and prognosis, and their higher risk of adverse outcomes after ACS. Although previous studies have demonstrated disparities in the care of both cancer and ACS among patients from ethnic minorities and socioeconomic deprivation, there is limited evidence around the magnitude of such disparities specifically in cancer patients presenting with ACS. This review summarises the current literature on differences in prevalence and management of ACS among patients with cancer from ethnic minorities and socioeconomically deprived backgrounds, as well as the gaps in evidence around the care of this high-risk population and potential solutions.

Incidence and risk factors of venous and arterial thromboembolic events among patients with ovarian cancer- data from a large Canadian database

OBJECTIVES

To determine the incidence of thromboembolic events (TEEs) in ovarian cancer patients and to identify risk factors that are significantly associated with the development of venous thromboembolism (VTE), arterial thromboembolism (ATE), or overall TEEs in this population.

METHODS

This is a retrospective cohort study of 4491 patients with epithelial ovarian cancer identified in the British Columbia cancer registry between 1996 and 2017. The presence of TEEs and risk factors were identified in administrative health records from fee-for-service provider visits and hospital data using ICD-9-CM and ICD-10-CM billing codes. Statistical analysis was performed using Chi-squared test and Fischer's exact test.

RESULTS

Of 4491 patients with epithelial ovarian cancer included in this study, 1.74% experienced ATE and (9.44%) experienced VTE. There was a significant association found between the occurrence of TEEs and all-cause mortality. Sepsis was significantly associated with both venous and arterial thromboembolism. The top three risk factors for arterial thromboembolism included peripheral vascular disease (PVD), open wound, and aneurysm.

CONCLUSIONS

Risk factors predictive of thrombosis in ovarian cancer patients are not consistent between ATE and VTE, thus thrombotic events should not be combined for analysis. Differential thrombosis risk assessment is needed to improve prevention strategies and guide thromboprophylaxis for these patients.

Risk Burden of Cancer in Patients Treated With Abbreviated Dual Antiplatelet Therapy After PCI: Analysis of Multicenter Controlled High-Bleeding Risk Trials

BACKGROUND

Oncological patients with coronary artery disease face an elevated risk of hemorrhagic and ischemic events following percutaneous coronary intervention. Despite medical guidelines recommending minimal dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) duration for patients with cancer, dedicated data on abbreviated DAPT in this population is lacking. This study aims to evaluate the occurrence of ischemic and hemorrhagic events in patients with cancer compared with other high-bleeding risk individuals.

METHODS

Patient-level data from 4 high-bleeding risk coronary drug-eluting stent studies (ONYX One, LEADERS FREE, LEADERS FREE II, and SENIOR trials) treated with short DAPT were analyzed. The comparison focused on patients with high-bleeding risk with and without cancer, assessing 1-year rates of net adverse clinical events (all-cause death, myocardial infarction, stroke, revascularization, and Bleeding Academic Research Consortium [BARC] types 3 to 5 bleeding) and major adverse clinical events (all-cause death, myocardial infarction, stroke).

RESULTS

A total of 5232 patients were included, of whom 574 individuals had cancer, and 4658 were at high-bleeding risk without previous cancer. Despite being younger with fewer risk factors, patients with cancer had higher net adverse clinical event (HR, 1.25; P=0.01) and major adverse clinical event (HR, 1.26; P=0.02), primarily driven by all-cause mortality and major bleeding (BARC 3-5), but not myocardial infarction, stroke, stent thrombosis, or repeat revascularization. Cancer was an independent predictor of net adverse clinical event (P=0.005), major adverse clinical event (P=0.01), and major bleeding (P=0.03).

CONCLUSIONS

The present work is the first report on abbreviated DAPT dedicated to patients with cancer. Cancer is a major marker of adverse outcomes and these events had high lethality. Despite short DAPT, patients with cancer experienced higher rates of major bleeding compared with patients without cancer with high-bleeding risk, which occurred mainly after DAPT discontinuation. These findings reinforce the need for a more detailed and individualized stratification of those patients.

REGISTRATION

URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov; Unique identifiers: NCT03344653, NCT01623180, NCT02843633, NCT0284.

Interventional cardiology in cancer patients: A position paper from the Portuguese Cardiovascular Intervention Association and the Portuguese Cardio-Oncology Study Group of the Portuguese Society of Cardiology

The field of Cardio-Oncology has grown significantly, especially during the last decade. While awareness of cardiotoxicity due to cancer disease and/or therapies has greatly increased, much of the attention has focused on myocardial systolic disfunction and heart failure. However, coronary and structural heart disease are also a common issue in cancer patients and encompass the full spectrum of cardiotoxicity. While invasive percutaneous or surgical intervention, either is often needed or considered in cancer patients, limited evidence or guidelines are available for dealing with coronary or structural heart disease. The Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions consensus document published in 2016 is the most comprehensive document regarding this particular issue, but relevant evidence has emerged since, which render some of its considerations outdated. In addition to that, the recent 2022 ESC Guidelines on Cardio-Oncology only briefly discuss this topic. As a result, the Portuguese Association of Cardiovascular Intervention and the Cardio-Oncology Study Group of the Portuguese Society of Cardiology have partnered to produce a position paper to address the issue of cardiac intervention in cancer patients, focusing on percutaneous techniques. A brief review of available evidence is provided, followed by practical considerations. These are based both on the literature as well as accumulated experience with these types of patients, as the authors are either interventional cardiologists, cardiologists with experience in the field of Cardio-Oncology, or both.

Risk of arterial thromboembolism, bleeding and mortality in atrial fibrillation patients with comorbid cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis

AIMS

Atrial fibrillation (AF) and cancer often co-exist. Each has been associated with an increased risk of morbidity and mortality. The aim of this meta-analysis was to synthesize available data regarding the incidence of arterial thromboembolism (TE), bleeding, and all-cause mortality in patients with AF with or without cancer.

METHODS

Literature search was conducted in PubMed, Ovid MEDLINE, WebOfScience, Scopus, CENTRAL, OpenGrey, and EThOS databases to identify studies that included patients with AF and accounted for cancer status with the incidence of TE (ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attack, or arterial thrombosis), major or clinically relevant non-major bleeding, and all-cause mortality. A random-effects meta-analysis was used.

RESULTS

Overall, 17 studies were included (3,149,547 patients). The risk of TE was similar in patients with AF with comorbid cancer compared with that in AF alone (pooled odds ratio [pOR] 0.97, 95% Confidence Interval [CI] 0.85-1.11, I2 = 87%). Major or clinically relevant non-major bleeding (pOR 1.65, 95% CI 1.35-2.02, I2 = 98%) and all-cause death (pOR 2.17, 95% CI 1.83-2.56, I2 = 98%) were significantly higher in patients with AF with cancer than in patients with AF only. The history of TE and hypertension and mean age were significant moderators of TE risk.

CONCLUSION

In patients with AF, the presence of cancer is associated with a similar risk of TE as well as an increased risk of bleeding and all-cause death compared with the absence of cancer.

Recurrent Multifocal Embolic Strokes in a 50-Year-Old Male: Unmasking Occult Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Recurrent cryptogenic embolic strokes pose a diagnostic challenge, often necessitating an extensive evaluation to determine the underlying cause. Cancer-related stroke is a frequently overlooked etiology, accounting for a substantial proportion of cryptogenic strokes. This case study underscores the importance of considering occult malignancies in patients with recurrent strokes of unknown origin and emphasizes the need for a comprehensive diagnostic workup to detect hidden malignancies. A 50-year-old male with a complex medical history presented with expressive aphasia and blurred vision resembling previous stroke episodes. Neurological examinations revealed right hemianopsia, paraphasia, and abnormal coordination. Neuroimaging studies showed multiple chronic infarctions, a large hemorrhagic infarction in the left posterior cerebral artery territory, and a small acute-to-subacute left parietal infarction. Due to the time of presentation and the presence of hemorrhagic transformation, the patient did not meet the criteria for intravenous tissue plasminogen activator administration. Given the recurrent nature of the strokes, an extensive evaluation was initiated to determine the underlying cause. Vascular imaging, including magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) of the head and neck and a CT angiogram, showed no significant stenosis. Vasculitis workup and cardiac evaluation yielded negative results. The blood workup was notable for elevated D-dimer levels. The involvement of multiple vascular territories and recurrent stroke despite adequate treatment and the absence of traditional risk factors for stroke raised a high clinical suspicion of occult malignancy. Further investigations led to the diagnosis of locally advanced squamous cell carcinoma (P16+), metastatic to the right neck lymph nodes (cTxN3M0). Although the primary source of cancer could not be identified, the P16+ status suggests the right tonsil or base of the tongue as the probable origin. Anticoagulation therapy was initiated, and the patient was scheduled for chemoradiation therapy. Although routine cancer investigation is not justified in ischemic strokes, the possibility of an occult malignancy should be considered in the presence of multifocal infarctions across different vascular territories with elevated D-dimer levels, particularly when traditional risk factors have been ruled out. A detailed physical exam can help localize the malignancy and early identification of occult malignancies can guide appropriate management strategies and help prevent future strokes. Further clinical trials are needed to establish optimal therapeutic approaches for preventing stroke recurrence in cancer-related strokes.

Pancoronary plaque characteristics and clinical outcomes in acute coronary syndrome patients with cancer history

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The prevalence of acute coronary syndrome (ACS) patients with cancer history is increasing and it is associated with higher mortality. However, there is limited evidence on the characteristics of coronary plaque in ACS patients with cancer history. This study explored the pancoronary plaque characteristics in ACS patients with cancer history by optical coherence tomography (OCT).

METHODS

A total of 306 ACS patients treated by 3-vessel OCT at the time of percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) were included, retrospectively. Patients were divided into two groups according to the presence or absence of cancer history: one group with cancer history (n = 98) and a matched group without cancer history (n = 208).

RESULTS

A total of 314 culprit lesions and 514 nonculprit lesions were identified by OCT in this study. In culprit lesions, ACS patients with cancer history had higher incidence of thin cap fibroatheroma (TCFA) (p = 0.016), cholesterol crystals (p = 0.028), calcification (p = 0.001) and thrombus (p = 0.001), and had thinner fibrous cap thickness (FCT) (p = 0.011), greater maximum lipid arc (p = 0.042) and lipid index (p < 0.001), compared to matched ACS patients without cancer history. In nonculprit lesions, ACS patients with cancer history had higher prevalence of high-risk plaque (14.7% vs. 7.7%, p = 0.017), nonculprit rupture (14.7% vs. 6.3%, p = 0.003), and TCFA (52.2% vs. 28.3%, p < 0.001), and had higher incidence of calcification (p = 0.003), thrombus (p = 0.029), cholesterol crystals (p = 0.002) and microchannels (p = 0.029). These non-culprit lesions had longer lesion length (p = 0.001), thinner FCT (p < 0.001), greater maximum lipid arc (p = 0.016) and lipid index (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

ACS patients with cancer history showed more high-risk plaque features in culprit and nonculprit lesions, compared with ACS patients without cancer history. Therefore, ACS patients with cancer history may have greater pancoronary vulnerability. This may predict a poorer prognosis for ACS patients with cancer history.

Lung cancer presenting with acute myocardial infarction and pulmonary embolism within 1 month

Acute myocardial infarction and pulmonary embolism can have life-threatening consequences such as congestive heart and respiratory failure, respectively. Cancer patients are at great risk of both acute myocardial infarction and pulmonary embolism complications because the malignancy sparks the patient's blood hypercoagulable state. Nevertheless, the literature currently offers only a few reports on acute myocardial infarction associated with pulmonary embolism, and two of them occurred in the same cancer patient. Here, we present a case of a 60-year-old woman who had been diagnosed with lung cancer. She was admitted to the emergency department twice. She was diagnosed with acute myocardial infarction at her first admission, when she experienced sudden-onset chest pain. Electrocardiography showed ST-segment elevation in leads V1-V3 with inverted T wave and pathological Q wave, suggesting an acute myocardial infarction. Coronary angiography revealed a thrombus in the left anterior descending coronary artery, and thrombus aspiration was performed. After 1 month, she had an attack of pulmonary embolism with syncope upon the second admission. A computed tomographic pulmonary angiography showed branches of right and left pulmonary embolism. Anticoagulation and antiplatelet measures were taken. In this article, we discuss the relationship between cancer and thrombosis with a special focus on the conservative management strategy regarding anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy in our case.

High-intensity interval training and thromboembolic events during chemotherapy for testicular cancer: a retrospective analysis from the Body & Cancer cohort

Background: Men with testicular cancer receiving platinum-based chemotherapy have an increased risk of thromboembolic events, with incidence rates between 8-24%. A recent trial evaluating the effect of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) prematurely closed as three out of nine participants (33%) in the intervention group developed a thromboembolic event. The purpose of this retrospective cohort study was: 1) (primary) to evaluate the incidence of thromboembolic events in men receiving chemotherapy for testicular cancer who had participated in HIIT during a 6-week exercise program (Body & Cancer) 2) to describe the feasibility of this program.Material and methods: Forty men who had participated in at least one HIIT session from February 2007 to February 2020 were included. Electronic medical records were searched for incident thromboembolic events (arterial and venous) during Body & Cancer and up to one-year post-chemotherapy. Attendance, cardiorespiratory fitness (VO2-peak), and upper and lower extremity muscular strength (1 repetition maximum (RM)) were obtained from the Body & Cancer database.Results: One participant developed a thromboembolic event during Body & Cancer. No participants developed a thromboembolic event in the follow-up period. In all, data represent 160 HIIT sessions with a median attendance of eight sessions [range 1-19]. Statistically significant increases in upper and lower extremity strength were observed (8.6 (4.2 to 13.0) and 26.0 (14.9 to 37.0) kg, respectively). No significant increase in cardiorespiratory fitness was found (0.14 (-0.03 to 0.31) l/min).Conclusion: While conclusions on the safety of HIIT cannot be drawn, data from the present study do not support previous findings cautioning avoidance of HIIT due to a possible added risk of thromboembolic events in men receiving platinum-based chemotherapy for testicular cancer. Considering the potential for positive effects on cardiovascular outcomes associated with HIIT, future studies with robust design should be performed in this population to confirm these observations.

Incidentally Discovered Aortic Thrombosis in a Patient Undergoing Capecitabine and Oxaliplatin Chemotherapy for Colon Cancer

This case report describes a 68-year-old male who presented to the emergency department (ED) with nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and fatigue after starting adjuvant combination chemotherapy with capecitabine and oxaliplatin two weeks prior. Further evaluation of this patient in the ED revealed an incidentally discovered aortic thrombosis, of which this patient did not exhibit any specific symptoms. This case, among a few others, has described the development of arterial thrombosis in patients with cancer undergoing combination chemotherapy with capecitabine and oxaliplatin.

Cancer and Myocardial Infarction in Women

Women who present with myocardial infarction (MI) are more likely to be diagnosed with nonobstructive coronary arteries (MINOCAs), spontaneous coronary artery dissection (SCAD), and takotsubo syndrome (TS) than men. Malignancy may predispose to MI and TS through shared risk factors and inflammatory mediators. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of cancer in women presenting with clinical syndrome of MI and the association between cancer and mechanism of MI presentation. Among 520 women with MI who underwent coronary angiography at NYU Langone Health from March 2016 to March 2020 or September 2020 to September 2021, 122 (23%) had a previous diagnosis of cancer. Patients with cancer were older at MI presentation but had similar co-morbidity to those without a cancer history. The most common cancers were breast (39%), gynecologic (15%), and gastrointestinal (13%). Women with cancer history were more likely to have TS (17% vs 11% without cancer history p = 0.049). Among women with a final diagnosis of MI, the type of MI (MINOCA, MI-coronary artery disease, or SCAD) was not significantly different between groups (p = 0.374). History of cancer was present in nearly a quarter of women presenting with MI and was associated with a greater likelihood of TS than MI. MINOCA and SCAD were not more common among women with a cancer history.

Tumor Genomic Profile Is Associated With Arterial Thromboembolism Risk in Patients With Solid Cancer

Background

Patients with cancer have an increased risk for arterial thromboembolism (ATE). Scant data exist about the impact of cancer-specific genomic alterations on the risk for ATE.

Objectives

The aim of this study was to determine whether individual solid tumor somatic genomic alterations influence the incidence of ATE.

Methods

A retrospective cohort study was conducted using tumor genetic alteration data from adults with solid cancers who underwent Memorial Sloan Kettering-Integrated Mutation Profiling of Actionable Cancer Targets testing between 2014 and 2016. The primary outcome, ATE, was defined as myocardial infarction, coronary revascularization, ischemic stroke, peripheral arterial occlusion, or limb revascularization and identified through systematic electronic medical record assessments. Patients were followed from date of tissue-matched blood control accession to first ATE event or death, for up to 1 year. Cause-specific Cox proportional hazards regression was used to determine HRs of ATE for individual genes adjusted for pertinent clinical covariates.

Results

Among 11,871 eligible patients, 74% had metastatic disease, and there were 160 ATE events. A significantly increased risk for ATE independent of tumor type was noted for the KRAS oncogene (HR: 1.98; 95% CI: 1.34-2.94; multiplicity-adjusted P = 0.015) and the STK11 tumor suppressor gene (HR: 2.51; 95% CI: 1.44-4.38; multiplicity-adjusted P = 0.015).

Conclusions

In a large genomic tumor-profiling registry of patients with solid cancers, alterations in KRAS and STK11 were associated with an increased risk for ATE independent of cancer type. Further investigation is needed to elucidate the mechanism by which these mutations contribute to ATE in this high-risk population.

Thrombotic Pathogenesis and Laboratory Diagnosis in Cancer Patients, An Update

Cancer-associated thrombosis (CAT) is a leading cause of mortality in cancer patients and its incidence varies in different parts of the world. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is a prominent manifestation of CAT, and significantly impacts morbidity and survival compared to arterial thrombosis in cancer patients. Several risk factors for developing VTE such as chemotherapy and immobilization have also been found co-existing with cancer patients and contributing to the increased risk of VTE in cancer patients than in non-cancer patients. This review highlights recent mechanisms in the pathogenesis of hypercoagulable syndromes associated with cancer, multiple mechanisms implicated in promoting cancer-associated thrombosis and their diagnostic approaches. Cancer cells interact with every part of the hemostatic system; generating their own procoagulant factors, through stimulation of the prothrombotic properties of other blood cell components or the initiation of clotting by cancer therapies which can all directly activate the coagulation cascade and contribute to the VTE experienced in CAT. It is our hope that the multiple interconnections between the hemostatic system and cancer biology and the improved biomarkers reported in this study can be relevant in establishing a predictive model for VTE, optimize early detection of asymptomatic microthrombosis for more personalized prophylactic strategies and incorporate effective therapeutic options and patient management to reduce mortality and morbidity, and improve the quality of life of affected cancer patients.

Tissue factor in cancer-associated thromboembolism: possible mechanisms and clinical applications

Venous and arterial thromboses, called as cancer-associated thromboembolism (CAT), are common complications in cancer patients that are associated with high mortality. The cell-surface glycoprotein tissue factor (TF) initiates the extrinsic blood coagulation cascade. TF is overexpressed in cancer cells and is a component of extracellular vesicles (EVs). Shedding of TF⁺EVs from cancer cells followed by association with coagulation factor VII (fVII) can trigger the blood coagulation cascade, followed by cancer-associated venous thromboembolism in some cancer types. Secretion of TF is controlled by multiple mechanisms of TF⁺EV biogenesis. The procoagulant function of TF is regulated via its conformational change. Thus, multiple steps participate in the elevation of plasma procoagulant activity. Whether cancer cell-derived TF is maximally active in the blood is unclear. Numerous mechanisms other than TF⁺EVs have been proposed as possible causes of CAT. In this review, we focused on a wide variety of regulatory and shedding mechanisms for TF, including the effect of SARS-CoV-2, to provide a broad overview for its role in CAT. Furthermore, we present the current technical issues in studying the relationship between CAT and TF.

Clinical significance of neutrophil extracellular traps biomarkers in thrombosis

Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) may be associated with the development of thrombosis. Experimental studies have confirmed the presence of NETs in thrombi specimens and potential role of NETs in the mechanisms of thrombosis. Clinical studies also have demonstrated significant changes in the levels of serum or plasma NETs biomarkers, such as citrullinated histones, myeloperoxidase, neutrophil elastase, nucleosomes, DNA, and their complexes in patients with thrombosis. This paper aims to comprehensively review the currently available evidence regarding the change in the levels of NETs biomarkers in patients with thrombosis, summarize the role of NETs and its biomarkers in the development and prognostic assessment of venous thromboembolism, coronary artery diseases, ischemic stroke, cancer-associated thromboembolism, and coronavirus disease 2019-associated thromboembolism, explore the potential therapeutic implications of NETs, and further discuss the shortcomings of existing NETs biomarkers in serum and plasma and their detection methods.

Multiple organ infarction caused by aortic thrombus in a lung cancer patient with the BRAF mutation

A 72-year-old male patient with advanced lung adenocarcinoma harboring a BRAF mutation had received treatment with a BRAF inhibitor and a MEK inhibitor. Treatment was ceased after 40 days because of disease progression. Twenty-four days after treatment cessation, the man was referred to our hospital with worsening abdominal and back pain over 2 weeks. Computed tomography revealed a massive thrombus in the descending aorta, bilateral kidney infarction, splenic infarction, and intestinal enlargement due to ileus. He was diagnosed with multiple organ infarction caused by arterial thromboembolism. Tumors harboring BRAF mutations and BRAF/MEK inhibitor therapy both have the potential to increase thrombosis risk, and were therefore thought to be associated with the occurrence of aortic thrombosis.

D-Dimer Is a Predictive Factor of Cancer Therapeutics-Related Cardiac Dysfunction in Patients Treated With Cardiotoxic Chemotherapy

Background

D-dimer is a sensitive biomarker for cancer-associated thrombosis, but little is known about its significance on cancer therapeutics-related cardiac dysfunction (CTRCD).

Methods

Consecutive 169 patients planned for cardiotoxic chemotherapy were enrolled and followed up for 12 months. All patients underwent echocardiography and blood test at baseline and at 3-, 6-, and 12 months.

Results

The patients were divided into two groups based on the level of D-dimer (>1.65 μg/ml or ≦ 1.65 μg/ml) at baseline before chemotherapy: high D-dimer group (n = 37) and low D-dimer group (n = 132). Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) decreased at 3- and 6 months after chemotherapy in high D-dimer group [baseline, 65.2% (62.8–71.4%); 3 months, 62.9% (59.0–67.7%); 6 months, 63.1% (60.0–67.1%); 12 months, 63.3% (58.8–66.0%), p = 0.03], but no change was observed in low D-dimer group. The occurrence of CTRCD within the 12-month follow-up period was higher in the high D-dimer group than in the low D-dimer group (16.2 vs. 4.5%, p = 0.0146). Multivariable logistic regression analysis revealed that high D-dimer level at baseline was an independent predictor of the development of CTRCD [odds ratio 3.93, 95% CI (1.00–15.82), p = 0.047].

Conclusion

We should pay more attention to elevated D-dimer levels not only as a sign of cancer-associated thrombosis but also the future occurrence of CTRCD.

Cancer-Associated Atherothrombosis: The Challenge

The association between venous thrombosis and malignancy, having typical features of a paraneoplastic syndrome, has been established for a century. Currently, it is recognized that arterial thromboembolism (ATE) may also behave as a paraneoplastic syndrome. Recent matched cohort studies, systematic reviews, and observational studies concur in showing an increased incidence of acute coronary events, ischemic stroke, accelerated peripheral arterial disease, and in-stent thrombosis during the 6-month period before cancer diagnosis, peaking for 30 days immediately before cancer diagnosis. Cancer patients with ATE are at higher risk of in-hospital and long-term mortality as compared with noncancer patients. In the present review, we focus on the epidemiology, clinical variants and presentation, morbidity, mortality, primary and secondary prevention, and treatment of cancer-associated ATE. The awareness that cancer can be a risk factor for ATE and that cancer therapy can initiate cardiovascular complications make it mandatory to identify high-risk patients, modify preexistent cardiovascular risk factors, and adopt effective antithrombotic prophylaxis. For ATE prophylaxis, modifiable patient-related risk factors and oncology treatment-related factors are levers for intervention. Statins and platelet antiaggregants have been studied, but their efficacy for prevention of cancer-associated ATE remains to be demonstrated. Results of revascularization procedures for cancer-associated ATE are worse than for ATE in noncancer patients. It is important that a multidisciplinary approach is adopted for making informed decisions, by involving the vascular surgeon, interventional radiologist, oncologist, and palliative medicine, as well as the patients and their family.

Myocardial infarction in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma patients - a population-based matched cohort study

BACKGROUND

The outcome for diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) patients has improved with the immunochemotherapy combination R-CHOP. An increased rate of heart failure is well documented following this treatment, whereas incidence and outcome of other cardiac complications, for example myocardial infarction, are less well known.

METHOD

We identified 3548 curatively treated DLBCL patients in Sweden diagnosed between 2007 and 2014, and 35474 matched lymphoma-free general population comparators. The incidence, characteristics and outcome of acute myocardial infarctions (AMIs) were assessed using population-based registers up to 11 years after diagnosis. The rate of AMI was estimated using flexible parametric models.

RESULTS

Overall, a 33% excess rate of AMI was observed among DLBCL patients compared with the general population (HR: 1.33, 95% CI: 1.14-1.55). The excess rate was highest during the first year after diagnosis and diminished after 2 years. High age, male sex and comorbidity were the strongest risk factors for AMI. Older patients (>70 years) with mild comorbidities (i.e. hypertension or diabetes) had a 61% higher AMI rate than comparators (HR: 1.61, 95% CI: 1.10-2.35), whereas the corresponding excess rate was 28% for patients with severe comorbidities (HR: 1.28, 95% CI: 1.01-1.64). Among younger patients (≤70), a short-term excess rate of AMI was limited to those with severe comorbidities. There was no difference in AMI characteristics, pharmacological treatment or 30-day survival among patients and comparators.

CONCLUSION

DLBCL patients have an increased risk of AMI, especially during the first 2 years, which calls for improved cardiac monitoring guided by age and comorbidities. Importantly, DLBCL was not associated with differential AMI management or survival.

Presentation, Diagnosis and Management of Innominate Artery Thromboembolism

PURPOSE

Acute thromboembolic disease of the innominate artery (IA) poses a unique set of therapeutic challenges, owing to its contribution to both the cerebral and upper extremity circulation, and risks of distal embolization via the carotid and subclavian arteries, respectively. Herein, we present a 74-year-old female who presents with acute IA thrombus treated successfully with right axillary and common carotid exposure and aspiration catheter-directed mechanical thrombectomy (CDT). Furthermore, an emerging use of CDT and its application in acute thromboembolism are outlined.

CASE REPORT

A 74-year-old female with history of right lung transplant for pulmonary fibrosis with severe pulmonary hypertension, and stage IIIA left lung adenocarcinoma status post left lower lobectomy undergoing adjuvant chemotherapy presented with acute IA thrombus and right-sided stroke. She was treated successfully with right axillary and common carotid exposure and aspiration CDT. Computed tomography angiography performed 1 month postoperatively confirmed patent IA with no evidence of residual or recurrent thrombus.

CONCLUSION

There are currently no standard guidelines on the management of acute IA thromboembolism, with mostly individual cases reported in the literature describing this rare entity. Nevertheless, this unique clinical entity mandates expeditious diagnostic and therapeutic approaches in order to avoid permanent neurologic deficits from distal embolization. Our case demonstrates that aspiration CDT may be an effective treatment modality for patients with acute IA thrombus.

Arterial Thrombosis in Cancer Patients: An Update

Cancer is associated with an increased incidence of both venous thromboembolism (VTE) and arterial thrombosis (cardiovascular events and ischemic stroke). Cancer-associated arterial thrombotic events are less well studied than VTE, but increasingly recognized, particularly in specific malignancies and in association with specific anticancer therapies. The pathogenesis of arterial thrombotic events in cancer is complex and involves generation of tumor-associated procoagulant factors and a variety of alterations in platelet function as well as in the coagulation and fibrinolytic systems, and endothelial injury and dysfunction, that combine to produce hypercoagulability. The multifactorial interaction between this prothrombotic state, the individual cardiovascular risk, advanced age and presence of comorbidities, and the specific neoplasm characteristics and therapy, may induce the vascular events. Recent studies based on population databases and prospective or retrospective analyses with prolonged follow-up highlight that cancer patients experience an increased (approximately 1.5-2-fold) risk of both cerebrovascular and cardiovascular events compared with noncancer individuals, which peaks in the time period of the diagnosis of cancer but may persist for years. Beyond the type of cancer, the risk reflects the tumor burden, being higher in advanced stages and metastatic cancers. The occurrence of arterial thromboembolic events is also associated with increased overall mortality. We here present an update of the pathophysiology, risk factors, clinical evidence, and treatment considerations on cancer-associated arterial thrombosis, in the light of the need for specific multidisciplinary prevention and surveillance strategies in this setting, in the frame of cardio-oncology approaches.

Platelet Innate Immune Receptors and TLRs: A Double-Edged Sword

Platelets are hematopoietic cells whose main function has for a long time been considered to be the maintenance of vascular integrity. They have an essential role in the hemostatic response, but they also have functional capabilities that go far beyond it. This review will provide an overview of platelet functions. Indeed, stress signals may induce platelet apoptosis through proapoptotis or hemostasis receptors, necrosis, and even autophagy. Platelets also interact with immune cells and modulate immune responses in terms of activation, maturation, recruitment and cytokine secretion. This review will also show that platelets, thanks to their wide range of innate immune receptors, and in particular toll-like receptors, and can be considered sentinels actively participating in the immuno-surveillance of the body. We will discuss the diversity of platelet responses following the engagement of these receptors as well as the signaling pathways involved. Finally, we will show that while platelets contribute significantly, via their TLRs, to immune response and inflammation, these receptors also participate in the pathophysiological processes associated with various pathogens and diseases, including cancer and atherosclerosis.

Challenges and Management of Acute Coronary Syndrome in Cancer Patients

Cancer and cardiovascular disease are the leading causes of mortality in the world. The prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and coronary artery disease in cancer patients is elevated, and it is associated with high mortality. Several mechanisms, such as the proinflammatory and procoagulant states present in cancer patients, may contribute to these scenarios. Oncological therapy can predispose patients to acute thrombosis, accelerated atherosclerosis and coronary spasm. Treatment decisions must be individualized and based on the cancer history and balancing bleeding and thrombosis risks.

Risk Factors for Gastric Cancer-Associated Thrombotic Diseases in a Han Chinese Population

The aim of the present work was to investigate the risk factors for gastric cancer- (GC-) associated thrombotic diseases in a Han Chinese population. A total of 333 patients diagnosed with GC, 68 with thrombotic diseases included in the case group and the remaining 265 in the control group, were enrolled. The relevant data for the participants, including general information (gender, age, smoking, and drinking), comorbidities (diabetes, hypertension, and anemia), tumor-related data (tumor site, histology, degree of differentiation, and clinical stage), and treatment-related data (surgery, chemotherapy, hormones, transfusion, and peripherally inserted central venous catheter (PICC)), were collected. Statistically significant factors derived from univariate analyses were then subjected to multivariate logistic regression analyses. The results demonstrate a statistically significant difference in age, diabetes, hypertension, histology, surgery, chemotherapy, and PICC (P < 0.05), compared with control. Age, diabetes, surgery, and PICC serve as independent risk factors for GC-associated thrombotic diseases (P < 0.05). The present work demonstrates that GC-associated thrombotic diseases are significantly associated with age, diabetes, surgery, and PICC, suggesting a potential target for early detection and preventive strategy for GC patients with thrombophilia.

The significance of coagulation and fibrinolysis-related parameters in predicting postoperative venous thrombosis in patients with breast cancer

Background

To explore the expression level of coagulation and fibrinolysis-related indexes in the plasma of breast cancer patients after surgery, and explore their predictive value for deep venous thrombosis (DVT).

Methods

From May 2016 to May 2019, 63 patients with lower extremity DVT after radical mastectomy in our hospital were selected as the thrombus group, and 69 patients without venous thrombosis after radical mastectomy were selected as the control group. The levels of D-dimer (D-D) and fibrinolytic product (FDP) were measured by latex enhanced immunoturbidimetry, Fibrinogen (FIB) levels were measured using the von Clauss method, thrombin antithrombin complex (TAT) and thrombomodulin (TM) levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the evaluation value of coagulation markers on tumor thrombosis was analyzed by receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) curve analysis.

Results

There were significant differences in blood pressure, platelet count (PLT) level, diabetes history, and tumor metastasis between the two groups (P<0.05). The levels of PT, D-D, FDP, TAT, and TM in the thrombus group were significantly higher than those in control group (P<0.05). The area under the curve (AUC) of D-D, FDP, and TAT were 0.790, 0.881, and 0.672, respectively and there was a marked difference among the indexes (P<0.05). The AUC of FDP was the largest, and the sensitivity and diagnostic value of FDP were the highest.

Conclusions

The plasma levels of FDP, D-D, TAT, and TM in breast cancer patients with DVT after radical mastectomy were significantly increased, which is related to imbalanced coagulation and fibrinolysis functioning in patients. FDP had the highest predictive value for DVT after radical mastectomy.

How I treat unexplained arterial thrombosis

Most arterial thrombotic events have a clear atherosclerotic or cardioembolic etiology, but hematologists are frequently asked to assist in the diagnosis and management of a patient with a nonatherosclerotic and noncardioembolic arterial event, referred to here as an unexplained arterial thrombosis. Because there is an assorted list of factors that can precipitate an arterial event, we present a systematic diagnostic approach to ensure consideration of not only primary hypercoagulable disorders, but also pro-thrombotic medications or substances, vascular and anatomic abnormalities, and undiagnosed systemic disorders, such as malignancy and autoimmune diseases. We also review existing literature of the role of hypercoagulable disorders in arterial thrombosis and discuss our approach to thrombophilia workup in patients after an unexplained arterial event. We conclude with 3 representative cases to both illustrate the application of the outlined diagnostic schema and discuss common management considerations, specifically the selection of anticoagulation vs antiplatelet therapy for secondary prevention.

Early stent thrombosis confirmed in a cancer patient receiving regorafenib, despite triple antithrombotic therapy: a case report

Background

While developments in oncology have lengthened survival in patients with cancer, such patients often develop cardiovascular diseases. Thus, percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is frequently undertaken in them. Although stent thrombosis remains a fatal complication in stent-based PCI, worldwide consensus panels tend to recommend shorter duration of dual-antiplatelet therapy. This is based on its clinical efficacy that has resulted from technological innovation. However, there is insufficient discussion on the risk of stent thrombosis in cancer patients with coronary artery disease, especially in those undergoing chemotherapeutic regimens that have a risk for thrombosis, such as regimens with the anti-vascular endothelial growth factor. Presented here is a case of early stent thrombosis that occurred in a cancer patient on regorafenib, despite the administration of triple antithrombotic therapy.

Case presentation

A 66-year-old Japanese male patient received regorafenib for metastatic colorectal carcinoma and apixaban for deep vein thrombosis. Coronary angiography revealed severe stenosis in the proximal left anterior descending artery. A sirolimus-eluting stent was implanted, without malapposition and under-expansion, under intravascular ultrasound guidance while administering a triple antithrombotic therapy (aspirin: 100 mg/day, prasugrel: 3.75 mg/day, and apixaban: 5 mg/day). However, he was admitted to the hospital for exacerbation of heart failure 1 month after PCI. Coronary angiography revealed contrastive defects in the previous stent. Optical frequency domain imaging confirmed stent thrombosis. PCI was successfully performed with perfusion balloon long-inflation. Antithrombotic therapy was enhanced (aspirin: 100 mg/day, ticagrelor: 120 mg/day, and apixaban: 10 mg/day) and regorafenib was discontinued permanently. While ischemic events did not occur thereafter, the patient died due to metastatic carcinoma progression.

Conclusions

This case suggests that anti-vascular endothelial growth factor might contribute to early stent thrombosis, despite triple antithrombotic therapy. Further discussion is needed on the surveillance and management of cancer patients with coronary artery disease receiving chemotherapy, which carries a risk of thrombosis.

Utility of Thromboelastography to Identify Hypercoagulability in Lung Cancer Related Ischemic Stroke Patients

Lung cancer related hypercoagulability could increase the risk of ischemic stroke. Routine coagulation tests may have limited capacity in evaluating hypercoagulability. The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of thromboelastography (TEG) in the identification of hypercoagulability in patients with lung cancer and cryptogenic ischemic stroke (LCIS). Between January 2016 and December 2018, whole citrated blood from LCIS patients (n = 35) and age- and gender-matched lung cancer patients and healthy volunteers were used for TEG and routine coagulation tests. The coagulation indicator and clinical data were compared among the 3 groups. There were 27/35 (77.14%) on TEG and 18/35 (51.43%) on routine coagulation tests of LCIS patients who had evidence of hypercoagulability. The detection rate of hypercoagulability by TEG in LCIS patients was higher than routine coagulation tests (P = 0.018). Comparing with lung cancer patients and healthy controls, LCIS patients have a significantly higher maximum amplitude (MA), fibrinogen, and D-dimer. Multivariate analysis showed that D-dimer and MA were significantly associated with ischemic stroke in lung cancer patients. ROC curve showed that the area under the curve of TEG (0.790 ± 0.048, 95% CI: 0.697-0.864) was significantly higher than routine coagulation tests (0.673 ± 0.059, 95% CI: 0.572-0.763) (P = 0.04) in identifying hypercoagulability in LCIS patients. Therefore, TEG could identify hypercoagulability in LCIS patients and healthy controls. Identification of hypercoagulability in lung cancer patients by TEG may be helpful to prevent the occurrence of LCIS.

Cardio-Oncology Education and Training: JACC Council Perspectives

The innovative development of cancer therapies has led to an unprecedented improvement in survival outcomes and a wide array of treatment-related toxicities, including those that are cardiovascular in nature. Aging of the population further adds to the number of patients being treated for cancer, especially those with comorbidities. Such pre-existing and developing cardiovascular diseases pose some of the greatest risks of morbidity and mortality in patients with cancer. Addressing the complex cardiovascular needs of these patients has become increasingly important, resulting in an imperative for an intersecting discipline: cardio-oncology. Over the past decade, there has been a remarkable rise of cardio-oncology clinics and service lines. This development, however, has occurred in a vacuum of standard practice and training guidelines, although these are being actively pursued. In this council perspective document, the authors delineate the scope of practice in cardio-oncology and the proposed training requirements, as well as the necessary core competencies. This document also serves as a roadmap toward confirming cardio-oncology as a subspecialty in medicine.

Platelets and Metastasis: New Implications of an Old Interplay

During the process of hematogenous metastasis, tumor cells interact with platelets and their precursors megakaryocytes, providing a selection driver for the metastatic phenotype. Cancer cells have evolved a plethora of mechanisms to engage platelet activation and aggregation. Platelet coating of tumor cells in the blood stream promotes the successful completion of multiple steps of the metastatic cascade. Along the same lines, clinical evidence suggests that anti-coagulant therapy might be associated with reduced risk of metastatic disease and better prognosis in cancer patients. Here, we review experimental and clinical literature concerning the contribution of platelets and megakaryocytes to cancer metastasis and provide insights into the clinical relevance of anti-coagulant therapy in cancer treatment.

Revascularization Outcomes in Patients With Acute Limb Ischemia and Active Neoplastic Disease

PURPOSE

To report the outcomes of surgical (ST), endovascular (ET), and hybrid (HT) treatment in cancer patients with acute limb ischemia (ALI).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A multicenter retrospective registry collected 139 patients (mean age 72.3±12.4 years; 73 men) with ALI and active malignancy treated by ET (41, 29%), ST (70, 51%), or HT (28, 20%) in 7 European centers between July 2007 and February 2019. In 22 cases (16%) ALI was the first manifestation of the malignancy. Lung cancer was the most common diagnosis (38, 27%). The primary composite outcome was amputation-free survival (AFS). Overall survival, amputation-free time (AFT), and reintervention-free time (RFT) were also assessed. Cox regression analysis was applied to identify independent risk factors for the primary and secondary outcomes. Results are presented as the hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

ET was associated with improved 12-month AFS compared with both ST (HR 2.27, 95% CI 1.20 to 4.28, p=0.002) and HT (HR 2.14, 95% CI 1.09 to 4.18, p=0.008). ST (HR 2.50, 95% CI 1.19 to 5.53, p=0.003) and HT (HR 3.10, 95% CI 1.45 to 6.65, p<0.001) were related to an increased risk for mortality compared with ET. At 12 months, the AFT was similar between the 3 groups (ET vs ST: HR 1.52, 95% CI 0.51 to 4.53, p=0.45 and ET vs HT: HR 1.21, 95% CI 0.36 to 4.11, p=0.73). The 12-month RFT also did not differ significantly between the 3 treatment options (ET vs ST: HR 1.10, 95% CI 0.49 to 2.46, p=0.79 and ET vs HT: HR 0.51, 95% CI 0.22 to 1.17, p=0.19). ST and/or HT increased the risk for the major amputation and/or death (HR 1.76, 95% CI 1.05 to 2.05, p=0.03), while Rutherford class I ischemia (HR 0.12, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.90, p=0.04) and previous vascular interventions on the index limb (HR 0.55, 95% CI 0.32 to 0.97, p=0.04) showed a protective effect.

CONCLUSION

In patients with ALI and active malignant disease, ET was associated with increased AFS and overall survival compared with both ST and HT, while the limb salvage and reintervention rates were comparable among the 3 groups.

Platelet-T cell aggregates in lung cancer patients: Implications for thrombosis

Platelet-leukocyte aggregates (PLAs) are associated with increased thrombosis risk. The influence of PLA formation is especially important for cancer patients, since thrombosis accounts for approximately 10% of cancer-associated deaths. Our objective was to characterize and quantify PLAs in whole blood samples from lung cancer patients compared to healthy volunteers with the intent to analyze PLA formation in the context of lung cancer-associated thrombosis. Consenting lung cancer patients (57) and healthy volunteers (56) were enrolled at the Dana Cancer Center at the University of Toledo Health Science Campus. Peripheral blood samples were analyzed by flow cytometry. Patient medical history was reviewed through electronic medical records. Most importantly, we found lung cancer patients to have higher percentages of platelet-T cell aggregates (PTCAs) than healthy volunteers among both CD4+ T lymphocyte and CD8+ T lymphocyte populations. Our findings demonstrate that characterization of PTCAs may have clinical utility in differentiating lung cancer patients from healthy volunteers and stratifying lung cancer patients by history of thrombosis.

Acute coronary syndromes in cancer patients

: Cardiovascular disease and cancer are responsible for the majority of deaths in the Western world. These two entities share common risk factors and their intersection will be more and more frequent in future due to general population aging and long-term cancer control. Clinical presentation, management and outcome of acute coronary syndromes (ACS) in cancer patients could differ from noncancer ones. Cancer patients were frequently excluded from clinical trials and so the paucity of data further complicates the scenario. The management of ACS in cancer patients represents a unique setting in which the risk/benefit ratio of invasive treatment should be carefully evaluated. This review focused on the available evidence of all aspects of ACS in cancer patients providing a guide to a multidisciplinary approach.

Acute myocardial infarction in a high-risk cancer population: Outcomes following conservative versus invasive management

BACKGROUND

The benefits of invasive versus noninvasive management in oncology patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) are unclear. We aimed to retrospectively determine outcome differences between conservative and invasive management of AMI in cancer patients.

METHODS

Patients from our institution between March 2016 and December 2018 with type 1 and type 2 AMI (excluding STEMI) were classified into 2 groups: medical therapy only and invasive strategies. Analyzed outcomes were overall survival (OS), procedural complications, subsequent events, and hospice referral. Kaplan-Meier method and log-rank test were used to compare OS between subgroups. Cox proportional hazards regression analyses were conducted to find factors associated with OS.

RESULTS

We included 201 patients. Type 1 MI was seen in 152 patients (76%) and type 2 MI in 49 (24%). Median OS was 13 months. Most presented with symptoms other than dyspnea or chest pain (49%) and with ECG revealing changes other than ST-segment depression and T-wave inversion (62%). Patients with type 2 MI had worse OS than patients with type 1 MI (HR = 2.3, p = 0.0002). Early coronary angiography (≤72 h; HR = 0.327, p < 0.0001), late coronary angiography (>72 h; HR = 0.496, p = 0.0426), and percutaneous coronary intervention (HR = 0.481, p = 0.0116) were associated with better OS than noninvasive approaches. Single and dual agent antiplatelet therapy, beta blockers, and statins were each associated with better OS.

CONCLUSIONS

Cancer patients without STEMI who underwent invasive treatment for AMI had better OS compared with those treated only medically, with the highest benefit when coronary angiography was performed within 72 h of admission for AMI.

Frequency of arterial thromboembolism in populations with malignancies: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Populations with cancer have been documented to have a greater risk of developing venous thromboembolism. The frequency of arterial thromboembolism (ATE) in cancer patients is unclear; while evidence examining this question has grown, it has yet to be systematically summarized. This study aims to systematically review the frequency of ATE in patients with cancer.

METHODS

A search of MEDLINE, Embase, CENTRAL, and Web of Science from inception to 28 January, 2019 was conducted. Two independent reviewers screened for eligible studies. Studies comparing the frequency of ATE between populations with cancer and controls were included while studies examining the frequency of ATE in the context of cancer therapies (e.g., chemotherapy, radiotherapy) were excluded. Data corresponding to the follow-up times closest to diagnosis and 1-year follow-up were extracted. Results Twelve retrospective cohort studies involving 1,260,237 patients were included. Ten studies concluded increased ATE risk in populations with malignancies. At the time point closest to diagnosis, patients with bladder, breast, colorectal, gastric, lung, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, and pancreatic cancers were at an increased risk. This risk diminished around 1 year after diagnosis except in patients with lung or pancreatic cancers. High heterogeneity within and between studies precluded meta-analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with cancer appear to have an increased risk of developing ATE, with the highest risk immediately after diagnosis and in patients with lung and pancreatic cancers. Better information on the attribu01 risk will require prospective studies that record comprehensive patient characteristics and interventions.

Stroke in malignancy: complexities of diagnosis and management: a case report

BACKGROUND

Although there is an established association between cancer and stroke, the role of malignancy as a causative agent or comorbidity is not always clear. Moreover, there are no established guidelines on the acute treatment of cancer-associated stroke or optimal anticoagulation. This case report illustrates the significance of these practice gaps.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 62-year-old Caucasian woman presented to our institute with acute neurological deficits and was found to have an occluded left middle cerebral artery on a computed tomographic angiogram. She was administered intravenous alteplase and underwent unsuccessful endovascular clot retrieval. Besides smoking and her age, she had no cerebrovascular risk factors, and the results of baseline investigations for the cause of stroke were negative. Subsequent computed tomography of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis showed metastatic malignancy, and in the context of a significantly elevated serum cancer antigen 19-9, we suspected a pancreatic primary cancer. A transthoracic echocardiogram demonstrated mitral regurgitation but no visible vegetation. The patient died of her illness. We made a diagnosis of cancer-associated stroke, specifically a likely case of nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis.

CONCLUSIONS

This case highlights the importance of having a high threshold of suspicion for malignancy as a cause of stroke.

Cancer-associated cerebral infarction during direct oral anticoagulant treatment in cancer patients: a case series

The effect of direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) on cancer-associated cerebral infarction (CI) is unclear. We present the clinical course of 20 consecutive patients with cancer-associated CI that developed during treatment with DOACs. The incidence rate of cancer-associated CI during the treatment with DOACs was 3.4%. The median modified Rankin scale (mRS) and Karnofsky performance status (KPS) after CI were 5 and 30, respectively. The median survival time after CI was 1 month. In the group in which the thrombus due to venous thromboembolism (VTE) was reduced before CI, the median mRS, KPS, and prognosis after CI were significantly better than in those of the group with unchanged thrombus. Cancer-associated CI also developed in patients taking DOACs and those who did not show VTE recurrence. When the VTE thrombus decreased or disappeared with DOAC treatment, the clinical course after cancer-associated CI was improved.

Unmet Needs in Managing Myocardial Infarction in Patients With Malignancy

Patients with cancer face a high short-term risk of arterial thromboembolism. One of the most fatal manifestations of arterial thromboembolism is myocardial infarction (MI), and patients with cancer face a 3-fold greater risk of MI than patients without cancer. The individual risk for arterial thrombotic events in patients with cancer is determined by the complex interaction of baseline cardiovascular risk factors, cancer type and stage, chemotherapeutic regimen, and other general contributing factors for thrombosis. Managing MI in patients with cancer is a clinical challenge, particularly due to cancer's unique pathophysiology, which makes it difficult to balance thrombotic and bleeding risks in this specific patient population. When patients with cancer present with MI, a limited proportion are treated with guideline-recommended therapy, such as antiplatelet therapy or invasive revascularization. Despite the limited evidence, existing reports consistently suggest similar clinical benefits of guideline-recommended therapy when administered to patients with cancer presenting with MI. In this review, we briefly summarize the available evidence, clinical challenges, and future perspectives on simultaneous management of MI and cancer, with a focus on invasive strategy.

YC-1 Prevents Tumor-Associated Tissue Factor Expression and Procoagulant Activity in Hypoxic Conditions by Inhibiting p38/NF-κB Signaling Pathway

Tissue factor (TF) expressed in cancer cells has been linked to tumor-associated thrombosis, a major cause of mortality in malignancy. Hypoxia is a common feature of solid tumors and can upregulate TF. In this study, the effect of YC-1, a putative inhibitor of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), on hypoxia-induced TF expression was investigated in human lung cancer A549 cells. YC-1 selectively prevented hypoxia-induced TF expression and procoagulant activity without affecting the basal TF levels. Surprisingly, knockdown or pharmacological inhibition of HIF-1α failed to mimic YC-1′s effect on TF expression, suggesting other mechanisms are involved. NF-κB, a transcription factor for TF, and its upstream regulator p38, were activated by hypoxia exposure. Treatment of hypoxic A549 cells with YC-1 prevented the activation of both NF-κB and p38. Inhibition of p38 suppressed hypoxia-activated NF-κB, and inhibited TF expression and activity to similar levels as treatment with an NF-κB inhibitor. Furthermore, stimulation of p38 by anisomycin reversed the effects of YC-1. Taken together, our results suggest that YC-1 prevents hypoxia-induced TF in cancer cells by inhibiting the p38/NF-κB pathway, this is distinct from the conventional anticoagulants that systemically inhibit blood coagulation and may shed new light on approaches to treat tumor-associated thrombosis.

Behçet's syndrome as a tool to dissect the mechanisms of thrombo-inflammation: clinical and pathogenetic aspects

Behçet's syndrome (BS) is a complex disease with different organ involvement. The vascular one is the most intriguing, considering the existence of a specific group of patients suffering from recurrent vascular events involving the venous and, more rarely, the arterial vessels. Several clinical clues suggest the inflammatory nature of thrombosis in BS, especially of the venous involvement, thus BS is considered a model of inflammation-induced thrombosis. Unique among other inflammatory conditions, venous involvement (together with the arterial one) is currently treated with immunosuppressants, rather than with anti-coagulants. Although many in-vitro studies have suggested the different roles of the multiple players involved in clot formation, in-vivo models are crucial to study this process in a physiological context. At present, no clear mechanisms describing the pathophysiology of thrombo-inflammation in BS exist. Recently, we focused our attention on BS patients as a human in-vivo model of inflammation-induced thrombosis to investigate a new mechanism of clot formation. Indeed, fibrinogen displays a critical role not only in inflammatory processes, but also in clot formation, both in the fibrin network and in platelet aggregation. Reactive oxygen species (ROS)-derived modifications represent the main post-translational fibrinogen alterations responsible for structural and functional changes. Recent data have revealed that neutrophils (pivotal in the pathogenetic mechanisms leading to BS damage) promote fibrinogen oxidation and thrombus formation in BS. Altogether, these new findings may help understand the pathogenetic bases of inflammation-induced thrombosis and, more importantly, may suggest potential targets for innovative therapeutic approaches.

Arterial events in cancer patients-the case of acute coronary thrombosis

Patients with cancer are at high risk for both venous and arterial thrombotic complications. A variety of factors account for the greater thrombotic risk, including the underlying malignancy and numerous cancer-directed therapies. The occurrence of an acute thrombotic event in patients with cancer is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. Acute coronary syndrome (ACS) represents a particularly important cardiovascular complication in cancer patients. With cardio-vascular risk factors becoming more prevalent in an aging cancer population that is surviving longer, questions pertaining to the appropriate management of vascular toxicity are likely to assume even greater value in the coming years. In this article, we review the current understanding of ACS in patients with cancer. The predisposition to thrombosis in a malignant host and the cancer treatments most commonly associated with vascular toxicity are reviewed. Risk prediction and management strategies are discussed, and discrepancies in the clinical evidence are highlighted.

Cancer-Associated Thrombosis: An Overview of Mechanisms, Risk Factors, and Treatment

Cancer-associated thrombosis is a major cause of mortality in cancer patients, the most common type being venous thromboembolism (VTE). Several risk factors for developing VTE also coexist with cancer patients, such as chemotherapy and immobilisation, contributing to the increased risk cancer patients have of developing VTE compared with non-cancer patients. Cancer cells are capable of activating the coagulation cascade and other prothrombotic properties of host cells, and many anticancer treatments themselves are being described as additional mechanisms for promoting VTE. This review will give an overview of the main thrombotic complications in cancer patients and outline the risk factors for cancer patients developing cancer-associated thrombosis, focusing on VTE as it is the most common complication observed in cancer patients. The multiple mechanisms involved in cancer-associated thrombosis, including the role of anticancer drugs, and a brief outline of the current treatment for cancer-associated thrombosis will also be discussed.

The role of neutrophils in thrombosis

Despite significant evidence implicating an important role for neutrophils in thrombosis, their impact on the thrombotic process has remained a matter of controversy. Until 2010, platelets, coagulation factors, fibrinogen and monocytes were implicated in the thrombotic process. Several studies conducted over the last decade now support the growing notion that neutrophils indeed do contribute significantly to this process. Neutrophils can contribute to pathologic venous and arterial thrombosis or 'immunothrombosis' by the release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and NET release is emerging as a major contributor to thrombogenesis in pathologic situations such as sepsis and malignancy. Further, blood-cell derived microparticles, including those from neutrophils, have been implicated in thrombus formation. Finally, inflammasome activation in the neutrophil identifies another important mechanism that may be operative in neutrophil-driven risk for thrombosis. The knowledge of these roles of neutrophils in thrombosis may pave the road for novel anti-thrombotic agents in the future that do not affect hemostasis.

Influence of aflibercept on platelet activation profile

Aflibercept appears to accumulate in systemic circulation following intravitreal injections in therapy of neovascular age-related macular degeneration. This gives raise to the question of whether aflibercept affects platelets and their function such as activation and aggregation, which are substantial in the pathogenesis of an arterial thromboembolic event (ATE). In order to determine the effect of aflibercept in platelet activation, platelets from healthy volunteers were treated with aflibercept and its solvents at equal concentrations (0.04 μg/mL - 4 μg/mL - 40 μg/mL - 400 μg/mL - 4 mg/mL) for 10 and 30 min before addition of agonists. IgG1 antibody was used as a control. The surface expression of GPIIb/IIIa, P-selectin, and platelet-bound stromal-cell-derived factor-1, which are potential blood biomarkers for ATEs, was determined on resting and activated platelets by the multispectral imaging flow cytometry, combining the features of flow cytometry with fluorescence microscopy. Platelet aggregation was assessed with light transmission aggregometry. To determine whether aflibercept directly interacts with platelets, aflibercept was labeled with the fluorescence FITC. Co-treatment of platelets with thrombin or PAR-4-AP and aflibercept resulted in increased activation of the fibrinogen receptor GPIIb/IIIa in comparison to controls (P < 0.05). Interestingly, the expression of platelet-derived P-selectin and SDF-1 was not affected by aflibercept, except thrombin-activated CD62P with 0.04 μg/mL aflibercept (aflibercept vs. its solvent: MSI = 1.54, IC = 1.201-1.879 vs. MSI = 1.37, IC = 1.136-1.604 [P = 0.031]) and SDF-1 with 4 mg/mL aflibercept (aflibercept vs. its solvent: MSI = 1.971, IC = 1.206-2.737 vs. MSI = 1.200, IC = 0.738-1.662 [P = 0.041]). Although the levels of platelet-bound aflibercept-FITC were significantly increased in all activated platelets, no effect was observed in platelet aggregation. Albeit no impact of aflibercept was found on platelet aggregation under the studied experimental conditions, the increased activation of the fibrinogen receptor GPIIb/IIIa and the presence of a direct interaction between aflibercept and platelets may partially explain the risk of ATE in patients under aflibercept treatment due to FcγRIIa mediated αIIbβ3 outside-in integrin signaling and transport of aflibercept into platelets. Therefore, the Fc domain seems to be involved in interactions between aflibercept and platelets. Further research is needed to explain the role of Fc containing aflibercept in the pathogenesis of drug-associated vascular events involving platelets, coagulation cascade, extracellular matrix proteins and other cells.