Preparation and Testing of Quaternized Chitosan Nanoparticles as Gene Delivery Vehicles

Eco-friendly and safe alternatives for the valorization of shrimp farming waste

The seafood industry generates waste, including shells, bones, intestines, and wastewater. The discards are nutrient-rich, containing varying concentrations of carotenoids, proteins, chitin, and other minerals. Thus, it is imperative to subject seafood waste, including shrimp waste (SW), to secondary processing and valorization for demineralization and deproteination to retrieve industrially essential compounds. Although several chemical processes are available for SW processing, most of them are inherently ecotoxic. Bioconversion of SW is cost-effective, ecofriendly, and safe. Microbial fermentation and the action of exogenous enzymes are among the significant SW bioconversion processes that transform seafood waste into valuable products. SW is a potential raw material for agrochemicals, microbial culture media, adsorbents, therapeutics, nutraceuticals, and bio-nanomaterials. This review comprehensively elucidates the valorization approaches of SW, addressing the drawbacks of chemically mediated methods for SW treatments. It is a broad overview of the applications associated with nutrient-rich SW, besides highlighting the role of major shrimp-producing countries in exploring SW to achieve safe, ecofriendly, and efficient bio-products.

Chitosan-Functionalized Poly(β-Amino Ester) Hybrid System for Gene Delivery in Vaginal Mucosal Epithelial Cells

Gene therapy displays great promise in the treatment of cervical cancer. The occurrence of cervical cancer is highly related to persistent human papilloma virus (HPV) infection. The HPV oncogene can be cleaved via gene editing technology to eliminate carcinogenic elements. However, the successful application of the gene therapy method depends on effective gene delivery into the vagina. To improve mucosal penetration and adhesion ability, quaternized chitosan was introduced into the poly(β-amino ester) (PBAE) gene-delivery system in the form of quaternized chitosan-g-PBAE (QCP). At a mass ratio of PBAE:QCP of 2:1, the polymers exhibited the highest green fluorescent protein (GFP) transfection efficiency in HEK293T and ME180 cells, which was 1.1 and 5.4 times higher than that of PEI 25 kD. At this mass ratio, PBAE-QCP effectively compressed the GFP into spherical polyplex nanoparticles (PQ-GFP NPs) with a diameter of 255.5 nm. In vivo results indicated that owing to the mucopenetration and adhesion capability of quaternized CS, the GFP transfection efficiency of the PBAE-QCP hybrid system was considerably higher than those of PBAE and PEI 25 kD in the vaginal epithelial cells of Sprague-Dawley rats. Furthermore, the new system demonstrated low toxicity and good safety, laying an effective foundation for its further application in gene therapy.

Amphiphilic Chitosan Bearing Double Palmitoyl Chains and Quaternary Ammonium Moieties as a Nanocarrier for Plasmid DNA

Amphiphilic chitosan, bPalm-CS-HTAP, having N-(2-((2,3-bis(palmitoyloxy)propyl)amino)-2-oxoethyl) (bPalm) groups as double hydrophobic tails and O-[(2-hydroxyl-3-trimethylammonium)] propyl (HTAP) groups as hydrophilic heads was synthesized and evaluated for its self-assembly properties and potential as a gene carrier. The degree of bis-palmitoyl group substitution (DS _bPalm) and the degree of quaternization (DQ) were approximately 2 and 56%, respectively. bPalm-CS-HTAP was found to assemble into nanosized spherical particles with a hydrodynamic diameter (D _H) of 265.5 ± 7.40 nm (PDI = 0.5) and a surface charge potential of 40.1 ± 0.04 mV. bPalm-CS-HTAP condensed the plasmid pVAX1.CoV2RBDme completely at a bPalm-CS-HTAP:pDNA ratio of 2:1. The self-assembled bPalm-CS-HTAP/pDNA complexes could enter HEK 293A and CHO cells and enabled gene expression at negligible cytotoxicity compared to commercial PEI (20 kDa). These results suggested that bPalm-CS-HTAP can be used as a promising nonviral gene carrier.

HACC-Based Nanoscale Delivery of the NbMLP28 Plasmid as a Crop Protection Strategy for Viral Diseases

Resistant genes as an effective strategy to antivirus of plants are at the core of sustainability efforts. We use the antiviral protein major latex protein 28 (NbMLP28 plasmid) and N-2-hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan (HACC) designated as the HACC/NbMLP28 complex as protective gene delivery vectors to prepare nanonucleic acid drugs. The maximum drug loading capacity of HACC was 4. The particle size of HACC/NbMLP28 was measured by transmission electron microscopy and found to be approximately 40-120 nm, the particle dispersion index (PDI) was 0.448, and the ζ-potential was 22.3 mV. This facilitates its ability to deliver particles. Different controls of laser scanning confocal experiments verified the effective expression of NbMLP28 and the feasibility of nanodelivery. The optimal ratio of HACC/plasmid was 2:1. Finally, the nanoparticle/plasmid complex was tested for its ability to control diseases and was found to significantly improve resistance to three viruses. The enhanced resistance was particularly notable 4 days after inoculation. Taken together, these results indicate that HACC/NbMLP28 is a promising tool to treat plant viruses. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that successfully delivered and expressed antiviral protein particles in plants. This gene delivery system can effectively load antiviral plasmids and express them in plant leaves, significantly affecting the plant resistance of three RNA viruses.

Production of transgenic Allium cepa by nanoparticles to resist Aspergillus niger infection

BACKGROUND

Transgenic plants are becoming a more powerful tool in modern biotechnology. Genetic engineering was used in biotech-derived products to create genetically modified (GM) plants resistant to diseases. The onion (Allium cepa, L.) is a common, important perennial vegetable crop grown in Egypt for food and economic value. Onions are susceptible to a variety of fungal infections and diseases. Aspergillus niger is a common onion phytopathogen that causes diseases such as black mould (or black rot), which is a major issue, particularly when exporting onions. A. niger grows between the bulb's outer (dead, flaky) skin and the first fleshy scales, which become water-soaked. Thionin genes produce thionin proteins, which have antimicrobial properties against a variety of phytopathogens, including A. niger. Chitosan nanoparticles act as a carrier for the thionin gene, which allows A. cepa to resist infection by A. niger.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Thionin gene (Thio-60) was transformed into A. cepa to be resistance to fungal infection. The gene was loaded on chitosan nanoparticles to be transformed into plants. Transgenic A. cepa had a 27% weight inhibition compared to non-transgenic one, which had a 69% inhibition. The expressed thionin protein has a 52% inhibitory effect on A. niger spore germination. All these findings supported thionin protein's antifungal activity as an antimicrobial peptide. Furthermore, the data presented here demonstrated the efficacy of chitosan nanoparticles in gene transformation.

CONCLUSION

The present study describes the benefits of producing transgenic onion resistance to black rot diseases via expression of thionin proteins.

Thermosensitive quaternized chitosan hydrogel scaffolds promote neural differentiation in bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and functional recovery in a rat spinal cord injury model

A thermosensitive quaternary ammonium chloride chitosan/β-glycerophosphate (HACC/β-GP) hydrogel scaffold combined with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) transfected with an adenovirus containing the glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) gene (Ad-rGDNF) was applied to spinal cord injury (SCI) repair. The BMSCs from rats were transfected with Ad-rGDNF, resulting in the expression of GDNF mRNA in the BMSCs increasing and their spontaneous differentiation into neural-like cells expressing neural markers such as NF-200 and GFAP. After incubation with HACC/β-GP hydrogel scaffolds for 2 weeks, neuronal differentiation of the BMSCs was confirmed using immunofluorescence (IF), and the expression of GDNF by the BMSCs was detected by Western blot at different time points. MTT assay and scanning electron microscopy confirmed that the HACC scaffold provides a non-cytotoxic microenvironment that supports cell adhesion and growth. Rats with SCI were treated with BMSCs, BMSCs carried by the HACC/β-GP hydrogel (HACC/BMSCs), Ad-rGDNF-BMSCs, or Ad-rGDNF-BMSCs carried by the hydrogel (HACC/GDNF-BMSCs). Animals were sacrificed at 2, 4, and 6 weeks of treatment. IF staining and Western blot were performed to detect the expression of NeuN, NF-200, GFAP, CS56, and Bax in the lesion sites of the injured spinal cord. Upon treatment with HACC/BMSCs, NF200 and GFAP were upregulated but CS56 and Bax were downregulated in the SCI lesion site. Furthermore, transplantation of HACC/GDNF-BMSCs into an SCI rat model significantly improved BBB scores and regeneration of the spinal cord. Thus, HACC/β-GP hydrogel scaffolds show promise for functional recovery in spinal cord injury patients.

Nanoparticle Based Gene Therapy Approach: A Pioneering Rebellion in the Management of Psychiatric Disorders

The neuropsychiatric illnesses have been enigmatic, with no effective treatment to date. The complexity and heterogeneity of psychiatric disorders are daunting for the development of novel treatment modalities. The conventional treatment approaches are less effective and are associated with several side effects, thus creating the need for the development of more innovative strategies. Since psychiatric disorders are known to exhibit genetic linkage, gene therapy has created an interest among the researchers worldwide. The delivery of nucleic acids is a complex process requiring the transport of genetic material across various intracellular and extracellular barriers to reach the target cells eliciting the transfection process. Therefore, the identification or development of the delivery system for nucleic acid delivery still remains the challenge. Viral vectors are quite effective but are associated with toxicity and side effects. With the rapid advancement in the field of nanotechnology, nanosized materials were identified to be the perfect candidate for nonviral vectors in gene delivery. The biggest advantage of nanoparticles is that their surface can be engineered in many possible ways to deliver the drugs directly to the target site. Although gene therapy has already been established as an innovative treatment modality for several neurological diseases, its use in psychiatry still warrants more investigations for its translation into clinical use. The present manuscript discusses the prospects of gene therapy in psychiatric disorders, their benefits, and pitfalls. The review embarks upon the importance of nanoparticle-based gene therapy for effective management of psychiatric disorders.

Folate receptor-targeted RNAi nanoparticles for silencing STAT3 in tumor-associated macrophages and tumor cells

We developed a STAT3 silencing siRNA to both tumor cells and M2 macrophages. The dual-targeting system prepared by electronic self-assembly was composed of folic acid-conjugated carboxymethyl chitosan for targeting and cationic chitosan derivatives for siRNA package. The effects of siRNA delivery was investigated in M2 macrophages and Lewis lung cancer cells (LLC). Due to the enhanced delivery efficiency, the dual-targeting delivery system exhibited a higher efficacy compared with non-targeting nanoparticles, resulting in a dramatically reduction of STAT3 expression in both cells, and a successful shift from M2 phenotypes (pro-tumor) to M1 phenotypes (anti-tumor) for macrophages. Additionally, the influence of the nanoparticles on LLC cells co-cultured with M2 macrophages was also investigated. The increased apoptosis and inhibition of proliferation of LLC cells were observed. In vivo therapeutic effect was also evaluated in s.c. tumor models, tumor growth was effectively inhibited and the level of M2 macrophages in tumor tissues was dramatically reduced.

Stimuli-Responsive Polymeric Nanosystem for Colon Specific Drug Delivery

An ideal colon specific drug delivery system needs to perform multiple functions like greater bio availability, less toxicity and higher therapeutic efficacy, all of which require high degree of smartness. This article focuses on the overview of the stimuli-responsive polymers and various nanodrug delivery systems which have found applications in colon specific delivery of drugs as this system provide a link between therapeutic need and drug delivery. These polymers exhibit a non-linear response to a small stimulus leading to a macroscopic alteration in their structure/properties. Stimuli responsive polymers display a significant physio chemical change in response to small changes in their environment (temperature, pH, light etc.). Colonic drug delivery has gained increased importance in treating diseases like Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, colon cancer etc. The expansion in the development of polymers based system with greater flexibility, versatility and unexplored potential enables new opportunities for them in uplifting bio medicine. Applying the concepts of smartness in the context of clinically relevant therapeutic and diagnostic systems, it can prelude in a new era of 'smart' therapeutics that can improve the health care fields. In particular, due to its high sensitivity to the stimuli, this system has been identified as a sensible platform for releasing drug at suitable site and at appropriate time.

Targeting delivery of partial VAR2CSA peptide guided N-2-Hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride chitosan nanoparticles for multiple cancer types

To developing a multiple cancer types targeting drug delivery carrier system, a 28 amino acids from the VAR2CSA was synthesized as the placental CSA-binding peptide (plCSA-BP). Its specific binding ability to cancer cells was tested on cancer tissue array, and the results showed that plCSA-BP could bind to multiple cancer types. Then, the plCSA-BP was used as a guiding peptide to coat nanoparticles synthesized from N-2-HACC (CSA/HACC-NPs) which were loaded with prodigiosin (CSA/HACC-PNPs) or indocyanine green (CSA/HACC-INPs). The cancer cells specific targeting and efficacy of the CSA/HACC-PNPs were tested by different cancer cells in vitro and various cancer xenograft model in vivo. A scramble peptide (SCR) was used as control and synthesized SCR/HACC-PNPs and SCR/HACC-INPs. The results showed that the CSA/HACC-INPs could specifically uptake by JEG-3, PC3 and A594 cells, and the CSA/HACC-PNPs exhibited better anti-cancer activity and lower toxic effect in subcutaneous choriocarcinoma and prostatic tumor models compared with the free prodigiosin, HACC-PNPs and SCR/HACC-PNPs. So, the CSA/HACC-NPs could be used as a specific delivery carrier for multiple cancer types, and provided an alternate treatment option of various cancers with a single recipe.

Current Advances in Chitosan Nanoparticles Based Drug Delivery and Targeting

Nanoparticles (NPs) have been found to be potential targeted and controlled release drug delivery systems. Various drugs can be loaded in the NPs to achieve targeted delivery. Chitosan NPs being biodegradable, biocompatible, less toxic and easy to prepare, are an effective and potential tool for drug delivery. Chitosan is natural biopolymer which can be easily functionalized to obtain the desired targeted results and is also approved by GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe by the United States Food and Drug Administration [US FDA]). Various methods for preparation of chitosan NPs include, ionic cross-linking, covalent cross-linking, reverse micellar method, precipitation and emulsion-droplet coalescence method. Chitosan NPs are found to have plethora of applications in drug delivery diagnosis and other biological applications. The key applications include ocular drug delivery, per-oral delivery, pulmonary drug delivery, nasal drug delivery, mucosal drug delivery, gene delivery, buccal drug delivery, vaccine delivery, vaginal drug delivery and cancer therapy. The present review describes the formation of chitosan, synthesis of chitosan NPs and their various applications in drug delivery.

Therapeutic Potential of DNAzyme Loaded on Chitosan/Cyclodextrin Nanoparticle to Recovery of Chemosensitivity in the MCF-7 Cell Line

Commonly, acquired resistances to anticancer drug are mediated by overexpression of a membrane-associated protein that encode via multi-drug resistance gene-1 (MDR1). Herein, the mRNA-cleaving DNAzyme that targets the mRNA of MDR1 gene in doxorubicin-resistant breast cancer cell line (MCF-7/DR) loaded on the chitosan β-cyclodextrin complexes was used as a tropical agent. Chitosan/β-cyclodextrin complexes were used to deliver DNAzymes into cancer cells. Determination of the physicochemical characteristics of the particles was done by photon correlation spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The encapsulation efficiency of the complexes was tested by using gel retardation assay. Positively charged nanoparticles interacted with DNAzyme that could perform as an efficient DNAzyme transfection system. The rationale usage of this platform is to sensitize MCF-7/DR to doxorubicin by downregulating the drug-resistance gene MDR1. Results demonstrated a downregulation of MDR1 mRNAs in MCF-7/DR/DNZ by real-time PCR, compared to the MCF-7/DR as control. WST1 assay showed the 22-fold decrease in drug resistance on treated cells 24 h after transfection. Results showed the intracellular accumulation of Rh123 increased in the treated cells with DNAzyme. Results suggested a potential platform in association with chemotherapy drug for cancer therapy and indicated extremely efficient at delivery of DNAzyme in restoring chemosensitivity.

Recent review of the effect of nanomaterials on stem cells

The field of stem-cell-therapy offers considerable promise as a means of delivering new treatments for a wide range of diseases. Recent progress in nanotechnology has stimulated the development of multifunctional nanomaterials (NMs) for stem-cell-therapy. Several clinical trials based on the use of NMs are currently underway for stem-cell-therapy purposes, such as drug/gene delivery and imaging. However, the interactions between NMs and stem cells are far from being completed, and the effects of the NMs on cellular behavior need critical evaluation. In this review, the interactions between several types of mostly used NMs and stem cells, and their associated possible mechanisms are systematically discussed, with specific emphasis on the possible differentiation effects induced by NMs. It is expected that the enhanced understanding of NM-stem cell interactions will facilitate biomaterial design for stem-cell-therapy and regenerative medicine applications.

Recent developments in solid lipid nanoparticle and surface-modified solid lipid nanoparticle delivery systems for oral delivery of phyto-bioactive compounds in various chronic diseases

Solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN) delivery systems have a wide applicability in the delivery of phyto-bioactive compounds to treat various chronic diseases, including diabetes, cancer, obesity and neurodegenerative diseases. The multiple benefits of SLN delivery include improved stability, smaller particle size, leaching prevention and enhanced lymphatic uptake of the bioactive compounds through oral delivery. However, the burst release makes the SLN delivery systems inadequate for the oral delivery of various phyto-bioactive compounds that can treat such chronic diseases. Recently, the surface-modified SLN (SMSLN) was observed to overcome this limitation for oral delivery of phyto-bioactive compounds, and there is growing evidence of an enhanced uptake of curcumin delivered orally via SMSLNs in the brain. This review focuses on different SLN and SMSLN systems that are useful for oral delivery of phyto-bioactive compounds to treat various chronic diseases.

Multifaceted Applications of Chitosan in Cancer Drug Delivery and Therapy

Chitosan is a versatile polysaccharide of biological origin. Due to the biocompatible and biodegradable nature of chitosan, it is intensively utilized in biomedical applications in scaffold engineering as an absorption enhancer, and for bioactive and controlled drug release. In cancer therapy, chitosan has multifaceted applications, such as assisting in gene delivery and chemotherapeutic delivery, and as an immunoadjuvant for vaccines. The present review highlights the recent applications of chitosan and chitosan derivatives in cancer therapy.

Nebulized anionic guanidinylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan/N-2-hydroxypropyltimehyl ammonium chloride chitosan nanoparticles for siRNA pulmonary delivery: preparation, characterization and in vitro evaluation

This study developed a pH-sensitive anionic system composed of guanidinylated O-carboxymethyl chitosan (GOCMCS) and N-2-hydroxypropyltimehyl ammonium chloride chitosan (N-2-HACC) for efficient siRNA delivery to the lungs following nebulization. About 16.8% of guanidine groups were incorporated into O-carboxymethyl chitosan (OCMCS) with the aid of O-methylisourea. Gel electrophoresis images demonstrated that siRNA was successfully encapsulated in nanoparticles ranging from 150 to 180 nm with zeta potential of about -17 mV. The nanoparticles containing GOCMCS existed superior transfection performance compared with their amino-based analogs. The evaluation in vitro revealed that nanoparticles were internalized into A549 cells by energy-dependent endocytosis, then achieved endosomal escape by direct transmembrane penetration of guanidine moieties as well as swelling behavior of nanoparticles due to the pH sensitivity of GOCMCS. The mRNA level of survivin gene was down-regulated to 6.9% using GOCMCS/N-2-HACC/siSurvivin NPs. The survivin siRNA mediated by nanoparticles caused 30% of cell growth inhibition and induced 19.45% of cell apoptosis, which was comparable to Lipofectamin2000. After nebulization of siRNA-loaded nanoparticles, the stability of siRNA was maintained and fine particle fractions were detected by two-stage impinger that accounted for more than 60%. These results suggested that GOCMCS/N-2-HACC nanoparticles possessed potential as safe and efficient carrier for siRNA pulmonary delivery.

Synthesis and Characterization of Chitosan Nanoaggregates from Gladius of Uroteuthis duvauceli

We report the synthesis, characterization, and biological properties of chitosan nanoaggregates from gladius of squid, Uroteuthis duvauceli. β-Chitin extracted from gladius was deacetylated to chitosan and further reduced to nanosize using ionic gelation process. The morphology and occurrence of chitosan nanoaggregates (CSNA) were observed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The degree of deacetylation (DD%) calculated from Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrum showed high value (~94 ± 1.25%) for chitosan. The CSNA depicts low molecular weight, stable positive zeta potential, and less ash and moisture content with high water and fat binding capacity. The antimicrobial activity was tested against pathogenic microorganisms, which depicted significant rate of inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli due to high cellular uptake. The antioxidant analysis for CSNA demonstrated high reducing power and scavenging activity towards superoxide radicals compared with the commercially available chitosan. Furthermore, nanoaggregates exhibited low cytotoxic behavior in biological in vitro tests performed using cervical cancer cell line. These results indicate that chitosan nanoaggregates synthesized from waste gladius will be highly efficient and safe candidate for biological applications as food packing film, drug carrier, and tissue engineering.

Enhanced Delivery of Plasmid Encoding Interleukin-12 Gene by Diethylene Triamine Penta-Acetic Acid (DTPA)-Conjugated PEI Nanoparticles

Recombinant therapeutic proteins have been considered as an efficient category of medications used for the treatment of various diseases. Despite their effectiveness, there are some reports on the systemic adverse effects of recombinant therapeutic proteins limiting their wide clinical applications. Among different cytokines used for cancer immunotherapy, interleukin-12 (IL-12) has shown great ability as a powerful antitumor and antiangiogenic agent. However, significant toxic reactions following the systemic administration of IL-12 have led researchers to seek for alternative approaches such as the delivery and local expression of the IL-12 gene inside the tumor tissues. In order to transfer the plasmid encoding IL-12 gene, the most extensively investigated polycationic polymer, polyethylenimine (PEI), was modified by diethylene triamine penta-acetic acid (DTPA) to modulate the hydrophobic-hydrophilic balance of the polymer as well as its toxicity. DTPA-conjugated PEI derivatives were able to form complexes in the size range around 100-180 nm with great condensation ability and protection of the plasmid against enzymatic degradation. The highest gene transfer ability was achieved by the DTPA-conjugated PEI at the conjugation degree of 0.1 % where the level of IL-12 production increased up to twofold compared with that of the unmodified PEI. Results of the present study demonstrated that modulation of the surface positive charge of PEI along with the improvement of the polymer hydrophobic balance could be considered as a successful strategy to develop safe and powerful nanocarriers.

Synthesis, characterisation and preliminary investigation of the haemocompatibility of polyethyleneimine-grafted carboxymethyl chitosan for gene delivery

The development of safe and efficient gene carriers is the key to the clinical success of gene therapy. In the present study, carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS) was prepared by chitosan (CS) alkalisation and carboxymethylation reactions. Then polyethyleneimine (PEI) was grafted to the backbone of CMCS by an amidation reaction. The CMCS-PEI copolymer showed strong complexation capability with DNA to form nanoparticles, and achieved lower cytotoxicity and higher transfection efficiency compared with PEI (25 kDa) towards 293T and 3T3 cells. Moreover, the haemocompatibility of the CMCS-PEI copolymer was investigated through the aggregation, morphology and lysis of human red blood cells (RBCs), along with the impact on the clotting function with activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT), prothrombin time (PT) and thromboelastographic (TEG) assays. The results demonstrated that the CMCS-PEI copolymer with a concentration lower than 0.05 mg/mL had little impact on the aggregation, morphology or lysis of RBCs, or on blood coagulation. Therefore, the copolymer may be a strong alternative candidate as an effective and safe non-viral vector.