The Toxicological Risk Assessment of Lead and Cadmium in Valeriana officinalis L., radix (Valerian root) as Herbal Medicinal Product for the Relief of Mild Nervous Tension and Sleep Disorders Available in Polish Pharmacies

The Control and Comprehensive Safety Assessment of Heavy Metal Impurities (As, Pb, and Cd) in Green Tea Camellia sinensis (L.) Samples (Infusions) Available in Poland

Tea is the world's most common drink after water, and the world's annual sales exceed $43 billion, of which more than $11 billion is green tea (Camellia sinensis (L.)). Increasing evidence continues to show that green tea consumption and its ingredients have a variety of potential health benefits. The aim of the study was to control and assess the toxicological risk (TRA) of three heavy metals (As, Pb, and Cd) in infusions of green tea (n = 12) from Polish markets. We applied the method of inductive coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) to determine the selected heavy metal and designed a specific toxicological risk assessment with three crucial tiers. The first tier of our strategy was to determine the elements investigated (heavy metal impurities, µg/L). The second step was to estimate the weekly intake of green tea infusions (µg/week) based on weekly consumption. The third tier was to estimate the weekly intake per weight (µg/L/week/bw), based on the average weekly intake of green tea infusion per adult compared to the provisional weekly intake (PTWI) established by the FAO/WHO Joint Food Additives Expert Committee (JECFA). The levels of the investigated heavy metals occur at different levels in all of the investigated green tea infusions. The heavy metal profile indicated that As (0.0721-10.585 µg/L), Pb (0.386-1.695 µg/L), and Cd (0.126-0.346 µg/L) were present in all samples. Basic analysis of general content shows that As (average = 0.325 µg/L) was at a level similar to Cd (average = 0.214 µg/L). Surprisingly, the Pb content (average 0.891 µg/L) was approximately 2.75-4 times higher than that of As and Cd, respectively. The application of our proposed safety assessment methodology (three tiers) provides satisfactory results for regulatory purposes. The evaluation of the investigated heavy metals in all products analysed from green tea samples (infusions) showed that there were no health hazards to consumers due to weekly exposure. The results indicated that after drinking green tea infusions from Polish markets, the amount of investigated elements in weekly doses does not represent any health risks to consumers.

Selenium improves the medicinal safety and quality of Bletilla striata by promoting the fixation of cadmium in root: Pot and field experiments

Soil cadmium (Cd) pollution poses a considerable threat to the safe production of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in China. The tubers of Bletilla striata, a precious TCM, are widely used to treat various ailments. However, the medicinal safety and quality of tubers are significantly affected by high Cd accumulation. While selenium (Se) is known to reduce Cd concentration in traditional crops, its impact on Cd content in medicinal parts and overall quality remains underexplored. To bridge the gap, a pot experiment and field validation were conducted to determine the effectiveness of foliar Se application. The results revealed that Se effectively counteracted Cd damage. Compared to Cd treatment alone, Se at 1.5 mg L-1 significantly decreased Cd content by 46.33 %, increased the biomass by 21.48 %, and raised the total phenolic, flavonoid, saponin, and polysaccharide contents by 46.31 %, 30.46 %, 27.08 %, and 29.01 %, respectively, in tubers. Furthermore, this study explored the mechanism of Se action. Se facilitated Cd accumulation in root cell walls and soluble fractions, enhanced the synthesis of phytochelatins (PC), and stored them in the form of PC-Cd complexes. These findings have profound implications for the cultivation of TCM, ensuring its safety, and promoting sustainable agricultural practices.

Physiological and molecular mechanisms of medicinal plants in response to cadmium stress: Current status and future perspective

Medicinal plants have a wide range of uses worldwide. However, the quality of medicinal plants is affected by severe cadmium pollution. Cadmium can reduce photosynthetic capacity, lead to plant growth retardation and oxidative stress, and affect secondary metabolism. Medicinal plants have complex mechanisms to cope with cadmium stress. On the one hand, an antioxidant system can effectively scavenge excess reactive oxygen species produced by cadmium stress. On the other hand, cadmium chelates are formed by chelating peptides and then sequestered through vacuolar compartmentalization. Cadmium has no specific transporter in plants and is generally transferred to plant tissues through competition for the transporters of divalent metal ions, such as zinc, iron, and manganese. In recent years, progress has been achieved in exploring the physiological mechanisms by which medicinal plants responding to cadmium stress. The exogenous regulation of cadmium accumulation in medicinal plants has been studied, and the aim is reducing the toxicity of cadmium. However, research into molecular mechanisms is still lagging. In this paper, we review the physiological and molecular mechanisms and regulatory networks of medicinal plants exposed to cadmium, providing a reference for the study on the responses of medicinal plants to cadmium stress.

The Toxicological Safety Assessment of Heavy Metal Impurities (As, Pb, and Cd) in Mint Tea Infusions (Mentha piperita L.) Available in Polish Markets

Mint tea (Mentha piperita L.) is one of the most widely consumed single infusion herbal teas (infusion) around the world; however, impurities and pollutants can pose a potential health risk to human health during tea drinking. The idea of this study was the comprehensive toxicological risk assessment (TRA) of three heavy metals (As, Pb, and Cd) in mint tea infusions (Mentha piperita L.; n = 17) available in Polish markets. We applied an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS)-based methodology for the determination of the chosen heavy metals and designed a specific TRA approach. The first step in our TRA was the determination of the elements investigated (heavy metal impurity profile, µg/L of infusion). The second step was the estimation of the weekly intake (µg/L of infusion/week) based on the weekly consumption of tea. The third step was the estimation of the weekly intake per body weight (µg/L of infusion/week/bw) based on the weekly consumption of tea per adult person compared to the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake (PTWI) established by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA). The level of investigated heavy metals occurs in all of the investigated mint tea infusions but at a relatively low level. The heavy metal profile indicated presence of As (0.36-1.254 µg/L), Pb (0.47-1.24 µg/L), and Cd (0.17-0.40 µg/L) in all the samples investigated. The basic analysis of the general content shows that As levels (mean = 0.70 µg/L) were very similar to the Pb levels (mean = 0.72 µg/L). The Cd content (mean = 0.21 µg/L) was approximately 3.5 times lower than the As and Pb levels. TRA provides satisfactory results for regulatory purposes. TRA for the elements investigated in the analyzed products indicated that there was no health hazard to consumers for weekly exposure. The results indicated that the levels of investigated elements in daily doses should not represent any health hazard to the consumer after drinking mini tea infusions from products available in Polish markets. This well-designed TRA methodology was useful and important for regulatory toxicology purposes.

The Toxicological Risk Assessment of Dermal Exposure of Patients Exposed to Lead and Cadmium Due to Application of Ointments with Marjoram Herb Extract (Majoranae herbae extractum)

Potential heavy metal impurities (HMI) in pharmaceuticals/pharmaceutical products/drugs based on plant raw materials (e.g., herbs) are an important problem in the pharmaceutical industry; however, there is a lack of scientific articles on the comprehensive toxicological risk assessment of HMI in ointment applied dermally. To make the appropriate toxicological risk assessment, we consider: (1) the raw results of the levels of lead and cadmium in the ointments (metal per kg of mass), (2) one-time administration of the applied ointment, (3) daily exposure of Pb and Cd in the applied ointments according to the maximum daily dose of applied pharmaceuticals, including transcutaneous penetration, (4) human health risk assessment based on the USEPA model, and 5) the margin of exposure (MoE). The raw results indicated that lead (7.05-101.78 µg/kg) and cadmium (0.32-0.81 µg/kg) were present in all samples. The levels of analyzed HMI (independently of the producer and declared composition) were similar. Pb and Cd contamination associated with daily doses met the standards of the ICH Q3D (R2) guide on elemental impurities in pharmaceuticals, including the cutaneous route of administration. Taking into account the daily amount of lead and cadmium (ointment, ug/day) the results were satisfactory, confirming the safety of marjoram herb extract ointments available in Polish pharmacies according to the ICH guideline Q3D (R2) on elemental impurities. The HQ values obtained for Pb and Cd in all samples were less than 1; therefore, exposure to these HMI would not cause a health risk based on the USEPA model strategy. Furthermore, the obtained values of MoE for Pb and Cd in ointments were above 100, so exposure to these elements would not cause a health risk based on the MoE-based strategy. The original contribution of this work is that this is the first study on the triple approach strategy to evaluate the safety of heavy metal impurities in traditional herbal medicinal products applied dermally in solid form (ointments with marjoram herb extract). The research is novel and has not been previously published; The proposed procedure includes transcutaneous penetration of heavy metal (Pb and Cd) impurities described for the first time in the literature.

The Level of Cadmium Impurities in Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products with Plantago lanceolata L., folium (Ribwort Plantain Leaves) Available in Polish Pharmacies - Comprehensive Toxicological Risk Assessment Including Regulatory Point of View and ICH Q3D Elemental Impurities Guideline

Plantago lanceolata L., folium (ribwort plantain) is an active pharmaceutical ingredient in traditional herbal medicinal products (THMP) available in pharmacies as a demulcent for the symptomatic treatment of oral or pharyngeal irritations and associated dry cough. This kind of THMP is widely applied among the European population; however, recently, voices have been heard in the public about alleged cadmium impurities. The idea of our study was a comprehensive risk assessment of the Cd impurity exposure and its effect on human health. Our assessment strategy was based on regulatory aspects (raw results versus limits set by FAO/WHO for herbal medicines) and toxicological risk assessment approach based on ICH Q3D guideline for elemental impurities in final pharmaceutical products. The cadmium was determined by electrothermal atomization atomic absorption spectrometry based on our previously described methodology. Obtained results show that all analysed THMP with P. lanceolata L., folium available in the Polish pharmacies contain cadmium impurities, but at a very low level (ranged 0.73 - 20.6 μg/L). The content of Cd in a single dose (ng/single dose) is also very low and is not a threat to patients. The estimated maximum daily exposure (ng/day) of Cd based on the 'worst-case scenario' (maximum concentrations by oral administration) meets the standards of ICH Q3D guideline (all results were below oral permitted daily exposure; PDE for Cd, i.e. < 5.0 µg/day). It can be concluded that all analysed samples of THMP with P. lanceolata L., folium should not represent any health hazard to the patients due to cadmium levels. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study about Cd impurity level in THMP with P. lanceolata L., folium (ribwort plantain leaves) available in European pharmacies.

The Human Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals Impurities (Cd and Pb) in Herbal Medicinal Products as Menthae piperitae tinctura (Mentha × piperita L., folium) Available in Pharmacies from Poland

Appropriate human health risk assessment (HHRA) is desire in modern regulatory toxicology, especially for elemental impurity studies. The aim of this article is the comprehensive HHRA of two heavy metals impurities—Cd and Pb in herbal medicinal products (HMP) as Menthae piperitae tinctura (Mentha × piperita L., folium) available in Polish pharmacies. These phytopharmaceuticals registered in EU are very common and usually applied OTC products by adults and also children/adolescents. For this purpose, we applied double regulatory approach, including: (1) requirements of ICH Q3D R1 guideline about elemental impurities and (2) additionally margin of exposure (MoE)-based concept to cover also specific population groups. Raw results shows that Cd and Pb were present in all analyzed HMP with Mentha × piperita L., folium (PTM1–PTM10) available in Polish pharmacies. In all samples, Cd impurities (in the range: 0.305–0.506 µg/L) were greatly lower than Pb impurities (in the range: 1.122–4.4921 µg/L). The HHRA of Cd and Pb impurities considering ICH Q3D R1 guideline-based approach made it possible to conclude that all results were below the permissible limit set by FAO/WHO for medicinal herbs and plants in different countries (300 µg/kg for Cd and 10,000 µg/kg for Pb). Additionally, the estimated daily intake of investigated elemental impurities compared to the PDE value confirm all samples safety. The second approach, an MoE-based strategy, indicated that the obtained values of MoE for Cd and Pb in daily dose for each samples were above 10,000; hence, exposure to these elemental impurities would not cause a health risk for all investigated population groups (children, adolescents, and adults). To the best our knowledge, this article is the first study about heavy metals impurities level in final HMPs as Menthae piperitae tinctura (Mentha × piperita L., folium) available in Polish pharmacies.

The Toxicological Assessment of Content and Exposure of Heavy Metals (Pb and Cd) in Traditional Herbal Medicinal Products with Marshmallow Root (Althaea officinalis L., radix) from Polish Pharmacies

The level of potentially toxic elements (PTE) in phytopharmaceuticals can be a potential threat to human health through the food chain. The traditional herbal medicinal products (THMPs) with the marshmallow root (Althaea officinalis L., radix), which we can find in European pharmacies, are widely used among the European population. However, recently, voices have been heard in the public about alleged PTE occurrence. In this article, the levels of Pb and Cd impurities were measured in samples of THMPs with marshmallow root available in Polish pharmacies (n = 10). Our proposed toxicological approach was based on two important issues. The first was PTE levels (Pb: 1.60–6.80 μg/L and Cd: 0.80–3.81 μg/L presented as raw results) in comparison with the permissible limit set by FAO/WHO for medicinal herbs (10,000 µg/kg for Pb and 300 µg/kg for Cd) and also ICH Q3D guidelines (0.5 μg/g for Pb and also Cd). The second was the estimation of exposure of investigated PTE in a single dose and daily dose for each THMP. It should be noted that the content of analyzed heavy metals in a single dose of analyzed products was very low, and hence is not a threat for patients. The obtained daily intake of heavy metals impurities in comparison with PDE values confirms the safety of all analyzed phytopharmaceuticals (all of the samples meet the standards of the ICH Q3D guideline). It can be summarized that each of the analyzed THMP with marshmallow root available in Poland are safe for the patients. Based on literature review, this article is the first study about heavy metals impurities level in final THMPs with A. officinalis L., radix (marshmallow root) available in European pharmacies.

The Health Risk Assessment of Essential Elemental Impurities (Cu, Mn and Zn) Through the Dermal Exposure of Herbal Ointment Extracted from Marjoram Herb (Majoranae herbae extractum)

Essential elements like Cu, Mn and Zn are extremely important for herbs' growth and physiological functions; however, from a toxicological point of view, the exposure of these elements (as essential elemental impurities) can exhibit potential harmful effects for patients. In Europe, very popular are ointments with Marjoram herb extract (Majoranae herbae extractum) as herbal medicinal products for adjunctively in rhinitis (runny nose). Based on posology of ointments with Marjoram herb extract, the exposure to these elemental impurities may be high during long-term use. Hence, the aim of this article is the health risk assessment of essential elemental impurities (Cu, Mn and Zn) through the dermal exposure of ointments with Marjoram herb extract (Majoranae herbae extractum) as herbal medicinal products applied adjunctively in rhinitis available in Polish pharmacies. The investigated essential elements were determined by well-validated methodology (R > 0.997, recoveries, LOD and LOQ values were acceptable) based on flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). Our results indicated that all analysed herbal medicinal products with Marjoram herb extract available in Polish pharmacies contain relatively low levels of essential element impurities, i.e. Cu (0.14-0.49 mg/kg), Mn (0.31-2.57 mg/kg) and Zn (0.73-3.19 mg/kg). The estimated exposure of the investigated elemental impurities confirms the safety of all products. To the best of our knowledge, the study about Cu, Mn and Zn contents in HMPs with Majoranae herbae extractum is described for the first time. The applied methodology and results are extremely important from regulatory toxicology point of view due to ICH Q3D elemental impurity guideline for pharmaceuticals.

The Toxicological Risk Assessment of Dermal Exposure of Patients Exposed to Nickel and Chromium due to Application of Ointments with Marjoram Herb Extract (Majoranae Herbae Extractum) Available in Polish Pharmacies

For elemental impurities that have been studied for transcutaneous absorption, the available data are rarely suitable for proper toxicological risk assessment - there are multiple factors that can influence this dermal absorption. Hence, in our studies, we applied generic and conservative approach - cutaneous permitted daily exposure (CPDE) described in International Conference on Harmonisation's Q3D Guideline on Elemental Impurities (ICH Q3D). The aim of this article is toxicological risk assessment (TRA) of dermal exposure of patients exposed to nickel and chromium due to application of ointments with Marjoram herb extract (Majoranae herbae extractum) available in Polish pharmacies (n = 5, because only five manufacturers produce this kind of pharmaceutical products in Poland). To make the appropriate TRA approach, we considered (1) raw results (metal per kg of ointment), (2) one-time administration of applied ointments, and (3) daily exposure versus CPDE. Due to the fact the concentrations of Ni generally present in cutaneous products as impurities are not considered sufficient to induce sensitization, the cutaneous and transcutaneous concentration limits (CTCLs) approach was applied for this element assessment. The toxicological analysis was carried out using microwave-assisted wet digestion with concentrated nitric acid and electrothermal atomization atomic absorption spectrometry. Our results show that the ointments with Marjoram herb extract from pharmacies in Poland represent a potential health hazard to patients; however, there may be a requirement for the monitoring of impurities of nickel in future. To the best of our knowledge, this paper is the first study about nickel and chromium content in ointments with Marjoram herb extract (Majoranae herbae extractum).

The Toxicological Risk Assessment of Cu, Mn, and Zn as Essential Elemental Impurities in Herbal Medicinal Products with Valerian Root (Valeriana officinalis L., radix) Available in Polish Pharmacies

The toxicological risk assessment (TRA) of elemental impurities (EI) in especially herbal medicinal products (HMP) is a significant challenge for pharmaceutical industry. In Europe, very popular are traditional HMP with valerian root (Valeriana officinalis L., radix) for relief of mild symptoms of mental stress and to aid sleep. The aim of our unique article is the comprehensive TRA of Cu, Mn, and Zn as EI in HMP with V. officinalis L., radix available in Polish pharmacies. This article is a continuation of our previously conducted studies about TRA of heavy metals (Pb and Cd) in these same samples. Investigated elements were determined by flame atomic absorption spectrometry (F AAS). The values of the correlation coefficients (R > 0.998) confirm the linearity of the applied instrument for precision and accuracy of results. The recoveries, LOD and LOQ values were acceptable. Our results show that all investigated HMP with valerian root available in Polish pharmacies contain Cu (0.16-0.23 mg/L), Mn (0.11-0.76 mg/L), and Zn (0.22-0.48 mg/L) at a very low level. Based on our estimation of EI including single dose (µg/20 mL) and estimated daily intake (µg/day), our results confirm the safety of all pharmaceuticals. To the best of our knowledge, the Cu, Mn, and Zn impurity profile in HMP with V. officinalis L., radix is described for the first time. The applied methodology and results are extremely important from regulatory toxicology point of view (ICH Q3D elemental impurities guideline for pharmaceuticals).

Nutrient enhancement potentials of moringa (Moringa oleifera), neem (Azadirachta indica), and pawpaw (Carica papaya) fortified composts in contaminated soils

This study assessed the nutrient enhancement potentials of moringa (Moringa oleifera), neem (Azadirachta indica), and pawpaw (Carica papaya) fortified composts in contaminated soils. The composts were formulated from poultry manure; leaves of moringa, neem, and pawpaw; and sawdust for a period of 8 weeks. Contaminated soil samples were collected from a dumpsite in Abeokuta, Ogun State. The contaminated soils were treated with the stabilized composts for a period of 4 weeks. Castor oil plants were introduced to assess the nutrient quality of the composts. Soil and compost parameters (pH, electrical conductivity (EC), organic carbon (OC), total nitrogen (TN), C/N ratio, P, K, Na, Mg, and Ca) were determined using the standard procedures. Data collected were evaluated for simple descriptive and inferential statistics. Results showed non-significance (p > 0.05) of C/N ratios that ranged between 12.75 ± 2.43 and 12.96 ± 1.49. The pH values of moringa- and neem-fortified composts were slightly acidic, while the pawpaw-formulated compost was slightly alkaline. The levels of TN and OC were three times higher in moringa- and pawpaw-fortified composts than in the neem compost. Introduction of the composts to the contaminated soils decreased the soil pH but increased the nutrient quality parameters such as TN (33-50%), OC (56-77%), P (7-20%), Na (89-91%), K (12-25%), and Mg (10-13%). The three compost types increased the physiological properties of the castor oil plants. The study indicated the promising potentials of the three composts for nutrient enhancement of soil.