Protection of the Developing Brain with Anthocyanins Against Ethanol-Induced Oxidative Stress and Neurodegeneration

Anthocyanins: Molecular Aspects on Their Neuroprotective Activity

Anthocyanins are a type of flavonoids that give plants and fruits their vibrant colors. They are known for their potent antioxidant properties and have been linked to various health benefits. Upon consumption, anthocyanins are quickly absorbed and can penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Research based on population studies suggests that including anthocyanin-rich sources in the diet lower the risk of neurodegenerative diseases. Anthocyanins exhibit neuroprotective effects that could potentially alleviate symptoms associated with such diseases. In this review, we compiled and discussed a large body of evidence supporting the neuroprotective role of anthocyanins. Our examination encompasses human studies, animal models, and cell cultures. We delve into the connection between anthocyanin bioactivities and the mechanisms underlying neurodegeneration. Our findings highlight how anthocyanins' antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties contribute to their neuroprotective effects. These effects are particularly relevant to key signaling pathways implicated in the development of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. In conclusion, the outcome of this review suggests that integrating anthocyanin-rich foods into human diets could potentially serve as a therapeutic approach for neurological conditions, and we identify promising avenues for further exploration in this area.

Unleashing nature's potential and limitations: Exploring molecular targeted pathways and safe alternatives for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (Review)

Driven by the limitations and obstacles of the available approaches and medications for multiple sclerosis (MS) that still cannot treat the disease, but only aid in accelerating the recovery from its attacks, the use of naturally occurring molecules as a potentially safe and effective treatment for MS is being explored in model organisms. MS is a devastating disease involving the brain and spinal cord, and its symptoms vary widely. Multiple molecular pathways are involved in the pathogenesis of the disease. The present review showcases the recent advancements in harnessing nature's resources to combat MS. By deciphering the molecular pathways involved in the pathogenesis of the disease, a wealth of potential therapeutic agents is uncovered that may revolutionize the treatment of MS. Thus, a new hope can be envisioned in the future, aiming at paving the way toward identifying novel safe alternatives to improve the lives of patients with MS.

An updated overview of cyanidins for chemoprevention and cancer therapy

Anthocyanins are colored polyphenolic compounds that belong to the flavonoids family and are largely present in many vegetables and fruits. They have been used in traditional medicine in many cultures for a long time. The most common and abundant anthocyanins are those presenting an O-glycosylation at C-3 (C ring) of the flavonoid skeleton to form -O-β-glucoside derivatives. The present comprehensive review summarized recent data on the anticancer properties of cyanidings along with natural sources, phytochemical data, traditional medical applications, molecular mechanisms and recent nanostrategies to increase the bioavailability and anticancer effects of cyanidins. For this analysis, in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies published up to the year 2022 were sourced from scientific databases and search engines such as PubMed/Medline, Google scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, Wiley and TRIP database. Cyanidins' antitumor properties are exerted during different stages of carcinogenesis and are based on a wide variety of biological activities. The data gathered and discussed in this review allows for affirming that cyanidins have relevant anticancer activity in vitro, in vivo and clinical studies. Future research should focus on studies that bring new data on improving the bioavailability of anthocyanins and on conducting detailed translational pharmacological studies to accurately establish the effective anticancer dose in humans as well as the correct route of administration.

Linum corymbulosum Protects Rats against CCl4-Induced Hepatic Injuries through Modulation of an Unfolded Protein Response Pathway and Pro-Inflammatory Intermediates

Liver fibrosis is a major pathological feature of chronic liver disease and effective therapies are limited at present. The present study focuses on the hepatoprotective potential of L. corymbulosum against carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)-induced liver damage in rats. Analysis of Linum corymbulosum methanol extract (LCM) using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) revealed the presence of rutin, apigenin, catechin, caffeic acid and myricetin. CCl₄ administration lowered (p < 0.01) the activities of antioxidant enzymes and reduced glutathione (GSH) content as well as soluble proteins, whereas the concentration of H₂O₂, nitrite and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances was higher in hepatic samples. In serum, the level of hepatic markers and total bilirubin was elevated followed by CCl₄ administration. The expression of glucose-regulated protein (GRP78), x-box binding protein-1 total (XBP-1 t), x-box binding protein-1 spliced (XBP-1 s), x-box binding protein-1 unspliced (XBP-1 u) and glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit (GCLC) was enhanced in CCl₄-administered rats. Similarly, the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and monocyte chemo attractant protein-1 (MCP-1) was strongly increased with CCl₄ administration to rats. Co-administration of LCM along with CCl₄ to rats lowered (p < 0.05) the expression of the above genes. Histopathology of the liver showed hepatocyte injury, leukocyte infiltration and damaged central lobules in CCl₄-treated rats. However, LCM administration to CCl₄-intoxicated rats restored the altered parameters towards the levels of control rats. These outcomes indicate the existence of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory constituents in the methanol extract of L. corymbulosum.

Role of DAMPs and cell death in autoimmune diseases: the example of multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis is a chronic neuroinflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) of unknown etiology and still incompletely clarified pathogenesis. The disease is generally considered a disorder resulting from a complex interplay between environmental risk factors and predisposing causal genetic variants. To examine the etiopathogenesis of the disease, two complementary pre-clinical models are currently discussed: the "outside-in" model proposing a peripherally elicited inflammatory/autoimmune attack against degraded myelin as the cause of the disease, and the "inside-out" paradigm implying a primary cytodegenerative process of cells in the CNS that triggers secondary reactive inflammatory/autoimmune responses against myelin debris. In this review, the integrating pathogenetic role of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in these two scenario models is examined by focusing on the origin and sources of these molecules, which are known to promote neuroinflammation and, via activation of pattern recognition receptor-bearing antigen-presenting cells, drive and shape autoimmune responses. In particular, environmental factors are discussed that are conceptually defined as agents which produce endogenous DAMPs via induction of regulated cell death (RCD) or act themselves as exogenous DAMPs. Indeed, in the field of autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis, recent research has focused on environmental triggers that cause secondary events in terms of subroutines of RCD, which have been identified as prolific sources of DAMPs. Finally, a model of a DAMP-driven positive feed-forward loop of chronic inflammatory demyelinating processes is proposed, aimed at reconciling the competing "inside-out" and "outside-in" paradigms.

Neuroinflammation: The Role of Anthocyanins as Neuroprotectants

Neuroinflammation is a trigger for several neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric disorders. Exposure to noxious external stimuli induces homeostatic disturbances resulting in morphological changes in microglia, their activation, and elaboration of pro-inflammatory mediators. This leads to neuroinflammation with the progressive loss of neurons. Nutraceuticals such as anthocyanins are a class of brightly colored bioactive compounds present in fruits and vegetables with purported health benefits. They interfere with the activation of several signaling cascades that have a prominent role in preventing neuroinflammation. More importantly, anthocyanins can cross the blood-brain barrier and are safe. Hence, the current review focuses on the bioavailability of anthocyanins, clinical and in vitro evidence on their role in impeding the activation of transcription factors, modulating the immune milieu within the central nervous system, preventing the activation of microglia, and averting neuroinflammation.

Anti-inflammatory, Antioxidant, and Antiapoptotic Action of Metformin Attenuates Ethanol Neurotoxicity in the Animal Model of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Fetal alcohol exposure has permanent effects on the brain structure, leading to functional deficits in several aspects of behavior, including learning and memory. Alcohol-induced neurocognitive impairment in offsprings is included with activation of oxidative- inflammatory cascade followed with wide apoptotic neurodegeneration in several brain areas, such as the hippocampus. Metformin is the first-line treatment for diabetic patients. It rapidly crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and exerts antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects. In this study, we evaluated the protective effects of metformin on ethanol-related neuroinflammation, as well as neuron apoptosis in the hippocampus of adult male rat in animal model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Treatment with ethanol in milk solution (5.25 and 27.8 g/kg, respectively) was conducted by intragastric intubation at 2-10 days after birth. To examine the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of metformin, an ELISA assay was performed for determining the tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and antioxidant enzyme concentrations. Immunohistochemical staining was conducted for evaluating the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and cleaved caspase-3 expression. Based on the results, metformin caused a significant increase in the superoxide dismutase (SOD) (P < 0.05) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) (P < 0.01) activities. On the other hand, it reduced the concentrations of TNF-α and malondialdehyde, compared to the ethanol group (P < 0.01). In the metformin group, there was a reduction in cell apoptosis in the hippocampus, as well as GFAP-positive cells (P < 0.01). Overall, apoptotic signaling, regulated by the oxidative inflammatory cascade, can be suppressed by metformin in adult brain rats following animal model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.

Neuroprotective Effects of Crocin Against Ethanol Neurotoxicity in the Animal Model of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Several experimental and clinical findings suggest that ethanol consumption during pregnancy activates an oxidative-inflammatory cascade followed by wide apoptotic neurodegeneration within several brain areas, including the hippocampus. Crocin can protect neurons because of its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic effects. This study evaluated the crocin protective impact on ethanol-related neuroinflammation and neuronal apoptosis in the hippocampus of rat pups exposed to alcohol over postnatal days. Ethanol (5.25 g/kg) was administrated in milk solution (27.8 ml/kg) by intragastric intubation 2-10 days after birth. The animals received crocin (15, 30, and 45 mg/kg) 2-10 days after birth. The hippocampus-dependent memory and spatial learning were evaluated 36 days after birth using the Morris water maze task. Further, the concentrations of TNF-α and antioxidant enzymes were determined using ELISA assay to examine the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Also, immunohistochemical staining was performed to evaluate the glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), Ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1(Iba-1), and caspase-3 expression. The administration of crocin significantly attenuated spatial memory impairment (P < 0.01) after ethanol neurotoxicity. Also, crocin led to a significant enhancement in SOD (P < 0.05) and GSH-PX (P < 0.01), whereas it caused a reduction in the TNF-α and MDA concentrations compared to the ethanol group (P < 0.01). Moreover, the hippocampal level of caspase-3 (P < 0.01) and the number of GFAP and Iba-1-positive cells decreased in the crocin group (P < 0.001). Crocin suppresses apoptotic signaling mediated by the oxidative-inflammatory cascade in rat pups exposed to ethanol after birth.

Isolation, Characterization and Neuroprotective Activity of Folecitin: An In Vivo Study

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) extend the global health burden. Consumption of alcohol as well as maternal exposure to ethanol can damage several neuronal functions and cause cognition and behavioral abnormalities. Ethanol induces oxidative stress that is linked to the development of NDs. Treatment options for NDs are yet scarce, and natural product-based treatments could facilitate ND management since plants possess plenty of bioactive metabolites, including flavonoids, which typically demonstrate antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Hypericum oblongifolium is an important traditional medicinal plant used for hepatitis, gastric ulcer, external wounds, and other gastrointestinal disorders. However, it also possesses multiple bioactive compounds and antioxidant properties, but the evaluation of isolated pure compounds for neuroprotective efficacy has not been done yet. Therefore, in the current study, we aim to isolate and characterize the bioactive flavonoid folecitin and evaluate its neuroprotective activity against ethanol-induced oxidative-stress-mediated neurodegeneration in the hippocampus of postnatal day 7 (PND-7) rat pups. A single dose of ethanol (5 g/kg body weight) was intraperitoneally administered after the birth of rat pups on PND-7. This caused oxidative stress accompanied by the activation of phosphorylated-c-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK), nod-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3), apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC), and cysteine-aspartic acid protease-1 (caspase-1) proteins to form a complex called the NLRP3-inflammasome, which converts pro-interleukin 1 beta (IL-1B) to activate IL-1B and induce widespread neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. In contrast, co-administration of folecitin (30 mg/kg body weight) reduced ethanol-induced oxidative stress, inhibited p-JNK, and deactivated the NLRP3-inflammasome complex. Furthermore, folecitin administration reduced neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative protein markers, including decreased caspase-3, BCL-2-associated X protein (BAX), B cell CLL/lymphoma 2 (BCL-2), and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) expression in the immature rat brain. These findings conclude that folecitin is a flavone compound, and it might be a novel, natural and safe agent to curb oxidative stress and its downstream harmful effects, including inflammasome activation, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration. Further evaluation in a dose-dependent manner would be worth it in order to find a suitable dose regimen for NDs.

Isolation, Characterization and Neuroprotective Activity of Folecitin: An In Vivo Study

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) extend the global health burden. Consumption of alcohol as well as maternal exposure to ethanol can damage several neuronal functions and cause cognition and behavioral abnormalities. Ethanol induces oxidative stress that is linked to the development of NDs. Treatment options for NDs are yet scarce, and natural product-based treatments could facilitate ND management since plants possess plenty of bioactive metabolites, including flavonoids, which typically demonstrate antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Hypericum oblongifolium is an important traditional medicinal plant used for hepatitis, gastric ulcer, external wounds, and other gastrointestinal disorders. However, it also possesses multiple bioactive compounds and antioxidant properties, but the evaluation of isolated pure compounds for neuroprotective efficacy has not been done yet. Therefore, in the current study, we aim to isolate and characterize the bioactive flavonoid folecitin and evaluate its neuroprotective activity against ethanol-induced oxidative-stress-mediated neurodegeneration in the hippocampus of postnatal day 7 (PND-7) rat pups. A single dose of ethanol (5 g/kg body weight) was intraperitoneally administered after the birth of rat pups on PND-7. This caused oxidative stress accompanied by the activation of phosphorylated-c-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK), nod-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3), apoptosis-associated speck-like protein (ASC), and cysteine-aspartic acid protease-1 (caspase-1) proteins to form a complex called the NLRP3-inflammasome, which converts pro-interleukin 1 beta (IL-1B) to activate IL-1B and induce widespread neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. In contrast, co-administration of folecitin (30 mg/kg body weight) reduced ethanol-induced oxidative stress, inhibited p-JNK, and deactivated the NLRP3-inflammasome complex. Furthermore, folecitin administration reduced neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative protein markers, including decreased caspase-3, BCL-2-associated X protein (BAX), B cell CLL/lymphoma 2 (BCL-2), and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) expression in the immature rat brain. These findings conclude that folecitin is a flavone compound, and it might be a novel, natural and safe agent to curb oxidative stress and its downstream harmful effects, including inflammasome activation, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration. Further evaluation in a dose-dependent manner would be worth it in order to find a suitable dose regimen for NDs.

Metformin improved memory impairment caused by chronic ethanol consumption during adolescent to adult period of rats: Role of oxidative stress and neuroinflammation

OBJECTIVE

Adolescence is a crucial time for brain maturation. We investigated the protective effects of metformin (Met) on behavioral changes, oxidative stress, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and nitrite in adulthood induced by ethanol (Eth) consumption during adolescent to adult period of rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The adolescence male rats (21 days old) were treated as: 1) Control, 2) Eth (Eth in drinking water (20 %)), 3-5) Eth-Met50, 100 and 150 mg/kg (Eth in drinking water and Met (50, 100, or 150 mg/kg). After 5 weeks treatment, Morris water maze (MMW) and passive avoidance (PA) tests were done.

RESULTS

The latency in the MWM test was higher and the latency to enter the dark chamber in the PA test was lower in the Eth group than in control. In Eth-Met100 and 150 groups, they were less than the Eth group. Malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitrite concentration in the hippocampus and cortex of the Eth group were higher than the control group. The thiol content and catalase and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities in hippocampal and cortical tissues of the Eth group reduced compared to the control group. TNF-α was higher in hippocampal tissues of Eth group animals. Met reversed all of these effects.

CONCLUSION

Our findings showed that the protective effects of Met against chronic Eth consumption induced learning and memory impairment were accompanied by decreasing of TNF-a, nitrite and oxidative stress in adolescent rats.

Alteration of CYP2E1, DBN1, DNMT1, miRNA-335, miRNA-21, c-Fos and Cox-2 gene expression in prefrontal cortex of rats' offspring submitted to prenatal ethanol exposure during their neurodevelopment and the preventive role of nancocurcumin administration: A histological, ultrastructural and molecular study

Ethanol (EtOH) has been linked to neurotoxic effects on the fetus and prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) has a negative impact on brain neurodevelopment. Therefore, the present study was aimed to focus on the underlying mechanisms of alcohol-induced oxidative stress and apoptotic cell death in addition to shedding the light on the modulatory effect of nanocurcumin in rats' offspring prefrontal cortices. The current study investigated the effects of prenatal maternal exposure to EtOH intragastric (i.g.) administration of 0.015 mL/g of a 10 % v/v ethanol solution throughout gestation and the concomitant use of nanocurcumin, on 21-day-old offspring Wistar rat prefrontal cortex parameters. CYP2E1, DBN1, DNMT1, miRNA-335, miRNA-21, c-Fos and Cox-2 gene expression as well as the accompanying histological and ultrastructural alterations were assessed. The implemented experimental setting has revealed that ethanol exposure caused significant alterations in the above mentioned parameters. Changes observed in nanocurcumin-treated animals were significantly different to the ethanol-treated group when nanocurcumin was concomitantly administered.

Gallic Acid Reverses Neurochemical Changes Induced by Prolonged Ethanol Exposure in the Zebrafish Brain

Gallic acid (GA) is a polyphenolic compound that has attracted significant interest due to its antioxidant action through free radical elimination and metal chelation. Ethanol is a highly soluble psychoactive substance, and its toxicity is associated with oxidative stress. In this context, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of GA on neurochemical changes in zebrafish brains exposed to ethanol. GA was first analyzed in isolation by treating the animals at concentrations of 5, 10, and 20 mg/L for 24 h and 48 h. The results revealed that the group exposed to 20 mg/L over a 24/48 h period exhibited increases in thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBA-RS) levels and 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein (DCFH) oxidation, demonstrating a pro-oxidant profile. Moreover, decrease in acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzyme activity was observed. To investigate the effects of GA after ethanol exposure, the animals were divided into four groups: control; those exposed to 0.5% ethanol for 7 days; those exposed to 0.5% ethanol for 7 days and treated with GA at 5 and 10 mg/L on day 8. Treatment with GA at 5 and 10 mg/L reversed impairment of choline acetyltransferase activity and the damage to TBA-RS levels, DCFH oxidation, and superoxide dismutase activity induced by ethanol. Results of the present study suggest that GA treatment (20 mg/L) appeared to disrupt oxidative parameters in the zebrafish brain. GA treatment at 5 and 10 mg/L reversed alterations to the cholinergic system induced by prolonged exposure to ethanol in the zebrafish brain, probably through an antioxidant mechanism.

Glycine, the smallest amino acid, confers neuroprotection against D-galactose-induced neurodegeneration and memory impairment by regulating c-Jun N-terminal kinase in the mouse brain

Background

Glycine is the smallest nonessential amino acid and has previously unrecognized neurotherapeutic effects. In this study, we examined the mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effect of glycine (Gly) against neuroapoptosis, neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, and memory impairment resulting from d-galactose-induced elevation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during the onset of neurodegeneration in the brains of C57BL/6N mice.

Methods

After in vivo administration of d-galactose (d-gal; 100 mg/kg/day; intraperitoneally (i/p); for 60 days) alone or in combination with glycine (1 g/kg/day in saline solution; subcutaneously; for 60 days), all of the mice were sacrificed for further biochemical (ROS/lipid peroxidation (LPO) assay, Western blotting, and immunohistochemistry) after behavioral analyses. An in vitro study, in which mouse hippocampal neuronal HT22 cells were treated with or without a JNK-specific inhibitor (SP600125), and molecular docking analysis were used to confirm the underlying molecular mechanism and explore the related signaling pathway prior to molecular and histological analyses.

Results

Our findings indicated that glycine (an amino acid) inhibited d-gal-induced oxidative stress and significantly upregulated the expression and immunoreactivity of antioxidant proteins (Nrf2 and HO-1) that had been suppressed in the mouse brain. Both the in vitro and in vivo results indicated that d-gal induced oxidative stress-mediated neurodegeneration primarily by upregulating phospho-c-Jun N-terminal kinase (p-JNK) levels. However, d-gal + Gly cotreatment reversed the neurotoxic effects of d-gal by downregulating p-JNK levels, which had been elevated by d-gal. We also found that Gly reversed d-gal-induced neuroapoptosis by significantly reducing the protein expression levels of proapoptotic markers (Bax, cytochrome c, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved PARP-1) and increasing the protein expression level of the antiapoptotic protein Bcl-2. Both the molecular docking approach and the in vitro study (in which the neuronal HT22 cells were treated with or without a p-JNK-specific inhibitor (SP600125)) further verified our in vivo findings that Gly bound to the p-JNK protein and inhibited its function and the JNK-mediated apoptotic pathway in the mouse brain and HT22 cells. Moreover, the addition of Gly alleviated d-gal-mediated neuroinflammation by inhibiting gliosis via attenuation of astrocytosis (GFAP) and microgliosis (Iba-1) in addition to reducing the protein expression levels of various inflammatory cytokines (IL-1βeta and TNFα). Finally, the addition of Gly reversed d-gal-induced synaptic dysfunction by upregulating the expression of memory-related presynaptic protein markers (synaptophysin (SYP), syntaxin (Syn), and a postsynaptic density protein (PSD95)) and markedly improved behavioral measures of cognitive deficits in d-gal-treated mice.

Conclusion

Our findings demonstrate that Gly-mediated deactivation of the JNK signaling pathway underlies the neuroprotective effect of Gly, which reverses d-gal-induced oxidative stress, apoptotic neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, and memory impairment. Therefore, we suggest that Gly (an amino acid) is a safe and promising neurotherapeutic candidate that might be used for age-related neurodegenerative diseases.

The Therapeutic Potential of Anthocyanins: Current Approaches Based on Their Molecular Mechanism of Action

Anthocyanins are natural phenolic pigments with biological activity. They are well-known to have potent antioxidant and antiinflammatory activity, which explains the various biological effects reported for these substances suggesting their antidiabetic and anticancer activities, and their role in cardiovascular and neuroprotective prevention. This review aims to comprehensively analyze different studies performed on this class of compounds, their bioavailability and their therapeutic potential. An in-depth look in preclinical, in vitro and in vivo, and clinical studies indicates the preventive effects of anthocyanins on cardioprotection, neuroprotection, antiobesity as well as their antidiabetes and anticancer effects.

Protective Effects of Some Grapevine Polyphenols against Naturally Occurring Neuronal Death

The interest in the biological properties of grapevine polyphenols (PPs) in neuroprotection is continuously growing in the hope of finding translational applications. However, there are several concerns about the specificity of action of these molecules that appear to act non-specifically on the permeability of cellular membranes. Naturally occurring neuronal death (NOND) during cerebellar maturation is a well characterized postnatal event that is very useful to investigate the death and rescue of neurons. We here aimed to establish a baseline comparative study of the potential to counteract NOND of certain grapevine PPs of interest for the oenology. To do so, we tested ex vivo the neuroprotective activity of peonidin- and malvidin-3-O-glucosides, resveratrol, polydatin, quercetin-3-O-glucoside, (+)-taxifolin, and (+)-catechin. The addition of these molecules (50 μM) to organotypic cultures of mouse cerebellum explanted at postnatal day 7, when NOND reaches a physiological peak, resulted in statistically significant (two-tailed Mann-Whitney test-p < 0.001) reductions of the density of dead cells (propidium iodide+ cells/mm2) except for malvidin-3-O-glucoside. The stilbenes were less effective in reducing cell death (to 51-60%) in comparison to flavanols, (+)-taxifolin and quercetin 3-O-glucoside (to 69-72%). Thus, molecules with a -OH group in ortho position (taxifolin, quercetin 3-O-glucoside, (+)-catechin, and peonidin 3-O-glucoside) have a higher capability to limit death of cerebellar neurons. As NOND is apoptotic, we speculate that PPs act by inhibiting executioner caspase 3.

Hydrogen Sulfide Attenuates the Neurotoxicity in the Animal Model of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), which is caused by prenatal alcohol exposure, can result in cell death in specific brain regions. Alcohol-induced neurocognitive defects offspring's are included with activation of oxidative-inflammatory cascade followed with wide apoptotic neurodegeneration in many brain's regions such as hippocampus. According to the latest studies, H₂S (hydrogen sulfide) can protect neuronal cells via antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic mechanisms in different animal models. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the protective effects of H₂S on ethanol-induced neuroinflammation and neuronal apoptosis in pup hippocampus with postnatal alcohol exposure. Administration of ethanol (5.27 g/kg) in milk solution (27.8 mL/kg) for each rat pups was performed through intragastric intubation on 2 to 10 postnatal days and NaHS as H₂S donor (1 mg/kg) was injected on similar time, subcutaneously. For examining the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, ELISA assay was performed to determine the levels of TNF-α, IL1β, and antioxidant enzymes. Immunohistochemical staining was performed to evaluate the expression levels of GFAP and caspase-3 also Nissl staining was done for necrotic cell death evaluation. H₂S treatment could significantly increase the activity of total superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione (P < 0.05). It also decreased the levels of TNF-α, IL1β, and malondialdehyde, compared with the ethanol group (P < 0.05). Moreover, the number of hippocampal caspase-3, GFAP-positive cells, and necrotic cells death reduced in the H₂S group (P < 0.01). Based on the findings, H₂S can inhibit apoptotic signaling that is mediated by the oxidative-inflammatory cascade following ethanol exposure of rat pups on postnatal period.

Danshen formula granule and salvianic acid A alleviate ethanol-induced neurotoxicity

As a direct neurotoxin, ethanol exposure is associated with nerve damage and dysfunction of central nervous system (CNS) and induced obvious neurotoxicity by increasing the reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, activation of endogenous apoptotic as well as necrotic signals, and other molecular mechanisms. The previous studies had demonstrated that natural herbal medicine offers protective effectiveness on ethanol-induced nerve cell damage. Danshen and its extracts have been known to have an antioxidant property and neuroprotective effects. However, the protective effects of Danshen formula granule and salvianic acid A on ethanol-induced neurotoxicity remain unknown. In this study, we found that the Danshen formula granule and salvianic acid A significantly inhibited the ethanol-induced cell death, blocked LDH release, and reduced dendritic spine loss. Furthermore, the intracellular ROS, MDA production, and ethanol-induced apoptosis were significantly ameliorated with Danshen formula granule and salvianic acid A pretreatment by increasing the antioxidant enzymatic activity of CAT, SOD and GSH-Px, and inhibiting apoptotic pathways. In addition, Danshen formula granule and salvianic acid A pretreatment obviously inhibit the apoptotic pathways by regulating the protein expression of Bcl-2, Bax, and Caspase-3. In conclusion, our data demonstrated that the Danshen formula granule and salvianic acid A provide a significantly protective effectiveness against ethanol-induced neurotoxicity, which might be a potential therapeutic drug for ethanol-induced neurological disorders.

Natural Antioxidant Anthocyanins-A Hidden Therapeutic Candidate in Metabolic Disorders with Major Focus in Neurodegeneration

All over the world, metabolic syndrome constitutes severe health problems. Multiple factors have been reported in the pathogenesis of metabolic syndrome. Metabolic disorders result in reactive oxygen species (ROS) induced oxidative stress, playing a vital role in the development and pathogenesis of major health issues, including neurological disorders Alzheimer's disease (AD) Parkinson's disease (PD). Considerable increasing evidence indicates the substantial contribution of ROS-induced oxidative stress in neurodegenerative diseases. An imbalanced metabolism results in a defective antioxidant defense system, free radicals causing inflammation, cellular apoptosis, and tissue damage. Due to the annual increase in financial and social burdens, in addition to the adverse effects associated with available synthetic agents, treatment diversion from synthetic to natural approaches has occurred. Antioxidants are now being considered as convincing therapeutic agents against various neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, medicinal herbs and fruits currently receive substantially more attention as commercial sources of antioxidants. In this review, we argue that ROS-targeted therapeutic interventions with naturally occurring antioxidant flavonoid, anthocyanin, and anthocyanin-loaded nanoparticles might be the ultimate treatment against devastating illnesses. Furthermore, we elucidate the hidden potential of the neuroprotective role of anthocyanins and anthocyanin-loaded nanoparticles in AD and PD neuropathies, which lack sufficient attention compared with other polyphenols, despite their strong antioxidant potential. Moreover, we address the need for future research studies of native anthocyanins and nano-based-anthocyanins, which will be helpful in developing anthocyanin treatments as therapeutic mitochondrial antioxidant drug-like regimens to delay or prevent the progression of neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD and PD.

Natural Dietary Supplementation of Curcumin Protects Mice Brains against Ethanol-Induced Oxidative Stress-Mediated Neurodegeneration and Memory Impairment via Nrf2/TLR4/RAGE Signaling

The aim of the current study was to explore the underlying neuroprotective mechanisms of curcumin (50 mg/kg, for six weeks) against ethanol (5 mg/kg i.p., for six weeks) induced oxidative stress and inflammation-mediated cognitive dysfunction in mice. According to our findings, ethanol triggered reactive oxygen species (ROS), apoptosis, neuroinflammation, and memory impairment, which were significantly inhibited with the administration of curcumin, as assessed by ROS, lipid peroxidation (LPO), and Nrf2/HO-1 (nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2/Heme-oxygenase-1) expression in the experimental mice brains. Moreover, curcumin regulated the expression of the glial cell markers in ethanol-treated mice brains, as analyzed by the relative expression TLR4 (Toll like Receptor 4), RAGE (Receptor for Advanced Glycations End products), GFAP (Glial fibrillary acidic protein), and Iba-1 (Ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1), through Western blot and confocal microscopic analysis. Moreover, our results showed that curcumin downregulated the expression of p-JNK (Phospo c-Jun N-Terminal Kinase), p-NF-kB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells), and its downstream targets, as assessed by Western blot and confocal microscopic analysis. Finally, the expression of synaptic proteins and the behavioral results also supported the hypothesis that curcumin may inhibit memory dysfunction and behavioral alterations associated with ethanol intoxication. Altogether, to the best of our knowledge, we believe that curcumin may serve as a potential, promising, and cheaply available neuroprotective compound against ethanol-associated neurodegenerative diseases.

Obestatin improve spatial memory impairment in a rat model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders via inhibiting apoptosis and neuroinflammation

Clinical and experimental evidence have demonstrated that, use of alcohol during pregnancy can interrupt brain development. Alcohol-induced neurocognitive deficits in offspring's are involved with activation of oxidative-inflammatory cascade joined with extensive apoptotic neurodegeneration in different brain regions such as hippocampus. Obestatin is a newly discovered peptide with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, activities in different animal models. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the protective effects of obestatin on alcohol-induced neuronal apoptosis and neuroinflammation in rat pups with postnatal ethanol exposure. Through intragastric intubation, ethanol (5/27 g/kg/day) was administered in male Wistar rat pups on postnatal days 2-10 (third trimester in humans). The animals received Obestatin (1 and 5 μg/kg, S.C.) on postnatal days 2-10. Thirty-six days after birth, the spatial memory test was performed using Morris water maze test, and then, antioxidant enzymes and TNF-α levels were measured by ELISA assay. The expression level of GFAP and caspase-3 proteins was determined via immunohistochemical staining after the behavioral test. Obestatin significantly improved spatial memory deficits (P < .01), and obestatin treatment could significantly increase glutathione and total superoxide dismutase activity (P < .05), reduce level of malondialdehyde (P < .05) and TNF-α in comparison with the ethanol group (P < .01). It's also reduced caspase-3 level, and decreased GFAP-positive cells in the hippocampus of ethanol-exposed rat pups (P < .01). The result of this study shows the potential involvement of oxidative-inflammatory cascade-mediated apoptotic signaling in cognitive deficits due to postnatal ethanol exposure, the results also indicated the neuroprotective effects of Obestatin on alcohol-related behavioral, biochemical and molecular deficits.

Nuclear factor-kappa β as a therapeutic target for Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a typical progressive, chronic neurodegenerative disorder with worldwide prevalence. Its clinical manifestation involves the presence of extracellular plaques and intracellular neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). NFTs occur in brain tissues as a result of both Aβ agglomeration and Tau phosphorylation. Although there is no known cure for AD, research into possible cures and treatment options continues using cell-cultures and model animals/organisms. The nuclear factor-kappa β (NF-κβ) plays an active role in the progression of AD. Impairment to this signaling module triggers undesirable phenotypic changes such as neuroinflammation, activation of microglia, oxidative stress related complications, and apoptotic cell death. These imbalances further lead to homeostatic abnormalities in the brain or in initial stages of AD essentially pushing normal neurons toward the degeneration process. Interestingly, the role of NF-κβ signaling associated receptor-interacting protein kinase is currently observed in apoptotic and necrotic cell death, and has been reported in brains. Conversely, the NF-κβ signaling pathway has also been reported to be involved in normal brain functioning. This pathway plays a crucial role in maintaining synaptic plasticity and balancing between learning and memory. Since any impairment in the pathways associated with NF-κβ signaling causes altered neuronal dynamics, neurotherapeutics using compounds including, antioxidants, bioflavonoids, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs against such abnormalities offer possibilities to rectify aberrant excitatory neuronal activity in AD. In this review, we have provided an extensive overview of the crucial role of NF-κβ signaling in normal brain homeostasis. We have also thoroughly outlined several established pathomechanisms associated with NF-κβ pathways in AD, along with their respective therapeutic approaches.

Health promoting properties of blueberries: a review

With the strengthening of the link between diet and health, several foodstuffs have emerged as possessing potential health benefits such as phenolic rich fruits and vegetables. Blueberries, along with other berries, given their flavonoid and antioxidant content have long since been considered as a particularly interesting health promoting fruit. Therefore, the present work aimed to compile the existing evidences regarding the various potential benefits of blueberry and blueberry based products consumption, giving particular relevance to in vivo works and epidemiological studies whenever available. Overall, the results demonstrate that, while the evidences that support a beneficial role of blueberry and blueberry extracts consumption, further human based studies are still needed.

Anthocyanins Improve Hippocampus-Dependent Memory Function and Prevent Neurodegeneration via JNK/Akt/GSK3β Signaling in LPS-Treated Adult Mice

Microglia plays a critical role in the brain and protects neuronal cells from toxins. However, over-activation of microglia leads to deleterious effects. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) has been reported to affect neuronal cells via activation of microglia as well as directly to initiate neuroinflammation. In the present study, we evaluated the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative effect of anthocyanins against LPS-induced neurotoxicity in an animal model and in cell cultures. Intraperitoneal injections of LPS (250 μg/kg/day for 1 week) induce ROS production and promote neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration which ultimately leads to memory impairment. However, anthocyanins treatment at a dose of 24 mg/kg/day for 2 weeks (1 week before and 1 week co-treated with LPS) prevented ROS production, inhibited neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration, and improved memory functions in LPS-treated mice. Both histological and immunoblot analysis indicated that anthocyanins reversed the activation of JNK, prevented neuroinflammation by lowering the levels of inflammatory markers (p-NF-kB, TNF-α, and IL-1β), and reduced neuronal apoptosis by reducing the expression of Bax, cytochrome c, cleaved caspase-3, and cleaved PARP-1, while increasing the level of survival proteins p-Akt, p-GSK3β, and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein. Anthocyanins treatment increased the levels of memory-related pre- and post-synaptic proteins and improved the hippocampus-dependent memory in the LPS-treated mice. Overall, this data suggested that consumption of naturally derived anti-oxidant agent such as anthocyanins ameliorated several pathological events in the LPS-treated animal model and we believe that anthocyanins would be a safe therapeutic agent for slowing the inflammation-induced neurodegeneration in the brain against several diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

Procyanidin B2 protects against d-galactose-induced mimetic aging in mice: Metabolites and microbiome analysis

To elucidate the possible mechanisms for the preventive effect of procyanidin B2 on aging, a combined analysis of metabolic profile and gut microbiome was carried out in the present study. The mimetic aged mice induced by d-galactose injection (500 mg/kg, sc daily), and the preventive group was fed with the diet plus 0.2% procyanidin B2. After 7 weeks of treatment, the spatial memory was assayed using the Morris water maze test. Procyanidin B2 significantly ameliorated the impaired memory and antioxidant abilities induced by d-galactose. Furthermore, metabolomics analysis of plasma based on LC/Q-TOF-MS demonstrated that phosphatidyl cholines, oleic acid, linoleic acid, carnitine, pantothenic acid, and taurocholic acid were significantly increased in the mice treated with procyanidin B2, and pyruvic acid, hydroxybutyric acid, hippuric acid, and cholic acid were decreased significantly. Together, gut microbiome analysis using Illumina sequencing showed that there were significant differences in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio and abundance of Roseburia, Lachnospiraceae, and Bifidobacterium between the aging and supplemental procyanidin B2 groups. In summary, procyanidin B2 possessed potential prevention of the cognitive and oxidative impairment via the metabolic pathway regulation related to citrate cycle, fatty acid, and bile acid in the aged mice, accompanied by remodeling the gut flora.

Nuclear Factor-Kappa B and Alzheimer Disease, Unifying Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors from Cell to Humans

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia, an eversible, progressive disease that causes problems with memory, thinking, language, planning, and behavior. There are a number of risk factors associated with developing AD but the exact cause remains unknown. The predominant theory is that excessive build-up of amyloid protein leads to cell death, brain atrophy, and cognitive and functional decline. However, the amyloid hypothesis has not led to a single successful treatment. The recent failure of Solanezumab, a monoclonal antibody to amyloid, in a large phase III trial was emblematic of the repeated failure of anti-amyloid therapeutics. New disease targets are urgently needed. The innate immune system is increasingly being implicated in the pathology of number of chronic diseases. This focused review will summarize the role of transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), a key regulator of innate immunity, in the major genetic and environmental risk factors in cellular, invertebrate and vertebrate models of AD. The paper will also explore the relationship between NF-κB and emerging environmental risk factors in an attempt to assess the potential for this transcription factor to be targeted for disease prevention.

Natural Dietary Supplementation of Anthocyanins via PI3K/Akt/Nrf2/HO-1 Pathways Mitigate Oxidative Stress, Neurodegeneration, and Memory Impairment in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Well-established studies have shown an elevated level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that induces oxidative stress in the Alzheimer's disease (AD) patient's brain and an animal model of AD. Herein, we investigated the underlying anti-oxidant neuroprotective mechanism of natural dietary supplementation of anthocyanins extracted from Korean black beans in the amyloid precursor protein/presenilin-1 (APP/PS1) mouse model of AD. Both in vivo (APP/PS1 mice) and in vitro (mouse hippocampal HT22 cells) results demonstrated that anthocyanins regulate the phosphorylated-phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-Akt-glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta (p-PI3K/Akt/GSK3β) pathways and consequently attenuate amyloid beta oligomer (AβO)-induced elevations in ROS level and oxidative stress via stimulating the master endogenous anti-oxidant system of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and heme oxygenase-1 (Nrf2/HO-1) pathways and prevent apoptosis and neurodegeneration by suppressing the apoptotic and neurodegenerative markers such as activation of caspase-3 and PARP-1 expression as well as the TUNEL and Fluoro-Jade B-positive neuronal cells in the APP/PS1 mice. In vitro ApoTox-Glo™ Triplex assay results also showed that anthocyanins act as a potent anti-oxidant neuroprotective agent and reduce AβO-induced neurotoxicity in the HT22 cells via PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 signaling. Importantly, anthocyanins improve memory-related pre- and postsynaptic protein markers and memory functions in the APP/PS1 mice. In conclusion, our data suggested that consumption and supplementation of natural-derived anti-oxidant neuroprotective agent such as anthocyanins may be beneficial and suggest new dietary-supplement strategies for intervention in and prevention of progressive neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD.

Ethanol-induced damage to the developing spinal cord: The involvement of CCR2 signaling

Ethanol exposure during development causes fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). A large body of evidence shows that ethanol produces multiple abnormalities in the developing central nervous system (CNS), such as smaller brain size, reduced volume of cerebral white matter, permanent loss of neurons, and alterations in synaptogenesis and myelinogenesis. The effects of ethanol on the developing spinal cord, however, receive little attention and remain unclear. We used a third trimester equivalent mouse model to investigate the effect of ethanol on the developing spinal cord. Ethanol caused apoptosis and neurodegeneration in the dorsal horn neurons of mice of early postnatal days, which was accompanied by glial activation, macrophage infiltration, and increased expression of CCR2, a receptor for monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1). Ethanol-induced neuronal death during development resulted in permanent loss of spinal cord neurons in adult mice. Ethanol stimulated endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and oxidative stress, and activated glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathways. Knocking out MCP-1 or CCR2 made mice resistant to ethanol-induced apoptosis, ER stress, glial activation, and activation of GSK3β and JNK. CCR2 knock out offered much better protection against ethanol-induced damage to the spinal cord. Thus, developmental ethanol exposure caused permanent loss of spinal cord neurons and CCR2 signaling played an important role in ethanol neurotoxicity.

A Critical Review on Polyphenols and Health Benefits of Black Soybeans

Polyphenols are plant secondary metabolites containing antioxidant properties, which help to protect chronic diseases from free radical damage. Dietary polyphenols are the subject of enhancing scientific interest due to their possible beneficial effects on human health. In the last two decades, there has been more interest in the potential health benefits of dietary polyphenols as antioxidant. Black soybeans (Glycine max L. Merr) are merely a black variety of soybean containing a variety of phytochemicals. These phytochemicals in black soybean (BSB) are potentially effective in human health, including cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases. Taking into account exploratory study, the present review aims to provide up-to-date data on health benefit of BSB, which helps to explore their therapeutic values for future clinical settings. All data of in vitro and in vivo studies of BSB and its impact on human health were collected from a library database and electronic search (Science Direct, PubMed, and Google Scholar). The different pharmacological information was gathered and orchestrated in a suitable spot on the paper.

17β-Estradiol via SIRT1/Acetyl-p53/NF-kB Signaling Pathway Rescued Postnatal Rat Brain Against Acute Ethanol Intoxication

Growing evidences reveal that 17β-estradiol has a wide variety of neuroprotective potential. Recently, it has been shown that 17β-estradiol can limit ethanol-induced neurotoxicity in neonatal rats. Whether it can stimulate SIRT1 signaling against ethanol intoxicity in developing brain remain elusive. Here, we report for the first time that 17β-estradiol activated SIRT1 to deacetylate p53 proteins against acute ethanol-induced oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration. A single subcutaneous injection of ethanol-induced oxidative stress triggered phospho c-jun N terminal kinase (p-JNK) and phospho mammalian target of rapamycin (p-mTOR) accompanied by neuroinflammation and widespread neurodegeneration. In contrast, 17β-estradiol cotreatment positively regulated SIRT1, inhibited p53 acetylation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, p-JNK, and p-mTOR activation and reduced neuroinflammation and neuronal cell death in the postnatal rat brain. Interestingly, SIRT1 inhibition with its inhibitor, i.e., EX527 further enhanced ethanol intoxication and also abolished the beneficial effects of 17β-estradiol against ethanol in the young rat's brain. Indeed, 17β-estradiol treatment increased the cell viability (HT22 cells), inhibited ROS production via the SIRT1/Acetyl-p53 pathway, and reduced the nuclear translocation of phospho-nuclear factor kappa B (p-NF-kB) in the BV2 microglia cells. Taken together, these results show that 17β-estradiol can be used as a potential neuroprotective agent against acute ethanol intoxication.

The Neuroprotective Effects of Carvacrol on Ethanol-Induced Hippocampal Neurons Impairment via the Antioxidative and Antiapoptotic Pathways

Chronic alcohol consumption causes hippocampal neuronal impairment, which is associated with oxidative stress and apoptosis. Carvacrol is a major monoterpenic phenol found in essential oils from the family Labiatae and has antioxidative stress and antiapoptosis actions. However, the protective effects of carvacrol in ethanol-induced hippocampal neuronal impairment have not been fully understood. We explored the neuroprotective effects of carvacrol in vivo and in vitro. Male C57BL/6 mice were exposed to 35% ethanol for 4 weeks to establish ethanol model in vivo, and hippocampal neuron injury was simulated by 200 mM ethanol in vitro. Morris water maze test was performed to evaluate the cognitive dysfunction. The oxidative stress injury of hippocampal neurons was evaluated by measuring the levels of oxidative stress biomarkers. Histopathological examinations and western blot were performed to evaluate the apoptosis of neurons. The results showed that carvacrol attenuates the cognitive dysfunction, oxidative stress, and apoptosis of the mice treated with ethanol and decreases hippocampal neurons apoptosis induced by ethanol in vitro. In addition, western blot analysis revealed that carvacrol modulates the protein expression of Bcl-2, Bax, caspase-3, and p-ERK, without influence of p-JNK and p-p38. Our results suggest that carvacrol alleviates ethanol-mediated hippocampal neuronal impairment by antioxidative and antiapoptotic effects.

Anthocyanins Protect SK-N-SH Cells Against Acrolein-Induced Toxicity by Preserving the Cellular Redox State

In Alzheimer's disease (AD) and in mild cognitive impairment (MCI) patients, by-products of lipid peroxidation such as acrolein accumulated in vulnerable regions of the brain. We have previously shown that acrolein is a highly reactive and neurotoxic aldehyde and its toxicity involves the alteration of several redox-sensitive pathways. Recently, protein-conjugated acrolein in cerebrospinal fluid has been proposed as a biomarker to distinguish between MCI and AD. With growing evidence of the early involvement of oxidative stress in AD etiology, one would expect that a successful therapy should prevent brain oxidative damage. In this regard, several studies have demonstrated that polyphenol-rich extracts exert beneficial effect on cognitive impairment and oxidative stress. We have recently demonstrated the efficacy of an anthocyanin formulation (MAF14001) against amyloid-β-induced oxidative stress. The aim of this study is to investigate the neuroprotective effect of MAF14001 as a mixture of anthocyanins, a particular class of polyphenols, against acrolein-induced oxidative damage in SK-N-SH neuronal cells. Our results demonstrated that MAF14001, from 5μM, was able to efficiently protect SK-N-SH cells against acrolein-induced cell death. MAF14001 was able to lower reactive oxygen species and protein carbonyl levels induced by acrolein. Moreover, MAF1401 prevented glutathione depletion and positively modulated, in the presence of acrolein, some oxidative stress-sensitive pathways including the transcription factors NF-κB and Nrf2, the proteins γ-GCS and GSK3β, and the protein adaptator p66Shc. Along with its proven protective effect against amyloid-β toxicity, these results demonstrate that MAF14001 could target multiple mechanisms and could be a promising agent for AD prevention.

Anthocyanins abrogate glutamate-induced AMPK activation, oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration in postnatal rat brain

Background

Glutamate-induced excitotoxicity, oxidative damage, and neuroinflammation are believed to play an important role in the development of a number of CNS disorders. We recently reported that a high dose of glutamate could induce AMPK-mediated neurodegeneration in the postnatal day 7 (PND7) rat brain. Yet, the mechanism of glutamate-induced oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in the postnatal brain is not well understood. Here, we report for the first time the mechanism of glutamate-induced oxidative damage, neuroinflammation, and neuroprotection by polyphenolic anthocyanins in PND7.

Methods

PND7 rat brains, SH-SY5Y, and BV2 cells treated either alone with glutamate or in combination with anthocyanins and compound C were examined with Western blot and immunofluorescence techniques. Additionally, reactive oxygen species (ROS) assay and other ELISA kit assays were employed to know the therapeutic efficacy of anthocyanins against glutamate.

Results

A single injection of glutamate to developing rats significantly increased brain glutamate levels, activated and phosphorylated AMPK induction, and inhibited nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) after 2, 3, and 4 h in a time-dependent manner. In contrast, anthocyanin co-treatment significantly reduced glutamate-induced AMPK induction, ROS production, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration in the developing rat brain. Most importantly, anthocyanins increased glutathione (GSH and GSSG) levels and stimulated the endogenous antioxidant system, including Nrf2 and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), against glutamate-induced oxidative stress. Interestingly, blocking AMPK with compound C in young rats abolished glutamate-induced neurotoxicity. Similarly, all these experiments were replicated in SH-SY5Y cells by silencing AMPK with siRNA, which suggests that AMPK is the key mediator in glutamate-induced neurotoxicity.

Conclusions

Here, we report for the first time that anthocyanins can potentially decrease glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in young rats. Our work demonstrates that glutamate is toxic to the developing rat brain and that anthocyanins can minimize the severity of glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in an AMPK-dependent manner.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-016-0752-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Anthocyanin-Loaded PEG-Gold Nanoparticles Enhanced the Neuroprotection of Anthocyanins in an Aβ1-42 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Nanomedicine is an emerging research area. In this study, we investigated the neuroprotective efficacy of anthocyanin-loaded polyethylene glycol-gold nanoparticles (PEG-AuNPs) for enhancing the neuroprotective efficacy of anthocyanins in an amyloid beta (Aβ)_1-42 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. We observed that both anthocyanin-loaded PEG-AuNPs and anthocyanins treatment (12 μg/g/day for 14 days) ameliorated memory impairments in the Aβ_1-42-injected mice. However, the anthocyanin-loaded PEG-AuNPs were more effective than free anthocyanins. Anthocyanin-loaded PEG-AuNPs protected pre- and post-synaptic proteins from Aβ_1-42-induced synaptic dysfunction. Interestingly, the anthocyanin-loaded PEG-AuNPs also regulated the p-PI3K/p-Akt/p-GSK3β pathway and, as a result, prevented the hyperphosphorylation of tau protein at serines 413 and 404 in the Aβ_1-42-injected mice. Western blot results of cytochrome c, Bax/Bcl2, caspases and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 expression levels, and immunohistochemical Nissl and Fluoro-Jade B staining also indicated that the anthocyanin-loaded PEG-AuNPs inhibited apoptosis and neurodegeneration in the Aβ_1-42-injected mice. Our results suggest that the conjugation of dietary polyphenolic compounds with gold nanoparticles, such as anthocyanin-loaded PEG-AuNPs, is a novel approach that may represent an important and promising nanomedicine strategy to prevent age-associated neurodegenerative diseases.

Acute Ethanol Inhibition of γ Oscillations Is Mediated by Akt and GSK3β

Hippocampal network oscillations at gamma band frequency (γ, 30-80 Hz) are closely associated with higher brain functions such as learning and memory. Acute ethanol exposure at intoxicating concentrations (≥50 mM) impairs cognitive function. This study aimed to determine the effects and the mechanisms of acute ethanol exposure on γ oscillations in an in vitro model. Ethanol (25-100 mM) suppressed kainate-induced γ oscillations in CA3 area of the rat hippocampal slices, in a concentration-dependent, reversible manner. The ethanol-induced suppression was reduced by the D1R antagonist SCH23390 or the PKA inhibitor H89, was prevented by the Akt inhibitor triciribine or the GSk3β inhibitor SB415286, was enhanced by the NMDA receptor antagonist D-AP5, but was not affected by the MAPK inhibitor U0126 or PI3K inhibitor wortmanin. Our results indicate that the intracellular kinases Akt and GSk3β play a critical role in the ethanol-induced suppression of γ oscillations and reveal new cellular pathways involved in the ethanol-induced cognitive impairment.

Melatonin Stimulates the SIRT1/Nrf2 Signaling Pathway Counteracting Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-Induced Oxidative Stress to Rescue Postnatal Rat Brain

AIMS

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induces oxidative stress and neuroinflammation both in vivo and in vitro. Here, we provided the first detailed description of the mechanism of melatonin neuroprotection against LPS-induced oxidative stress, acute neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG) region of the postnatal day 7 (PND7) rat brain.

METHODS

The neuroprotective effects of melatonin against LPS-induced neurotoxicity were analyzed using multiple research techniques, including Western blotting, immunofluorescence, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) in PND7 rat brain homogenates and BV2 cell lysates in vitro. We also used EX527 to inhibit silent information regulator transcript-1 (SIRT1).

RESULTS

A single intraperitoneal (i.p) injection of LPS to PND7 rats significantly induced glial cell activation, acute neuroinflammation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and apoptotic neurodegeneration in hippocampal DG region after 4 h. However, the coadministration of melatonin significantly inhibited both LPS-induced acute neuroinflammation and apoptotic neurodegeneration and improved synaptic dysfunction in the hippocampal DG region of PND7 rats. Most importantly, melatonin stimulated the SIRT1/Nrf2 (nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2) signaling pathway to reduce LPS-induced ROS generation. The beneficial effects of melatonin were further confirmed in LPS-stimulated BV2 microglia cell lines in vitro using EX527 as an inhibitor of SIRT1. LPS-induced oxidative stress, Nrf2 inhibition, and neuroinflammation are SIRT1-dependent in BV2 microglia cell lines.

CONCLUSION

These results demonstrated that melatonin treatment rescued the hippocampal DG region of PND7 rat brains against LPS-induced oxidative stress damage, acute neuroinflammation, and apoptotic neurodegeneration via SIRT1/Nrf2 signaling pathway activation.

Mitochondrial dysfunction and cell death in neurodegenerative diseases through nitroxidative stress

Mitochondria are important for providing cellular energy ATP through the oxidative phosphorylation pathway. They are also critical in regulating many cellular functions including the fatty acid oxidation, the metabolism of glutamate and urea, the anti-oxidant defense, and the apoptosis pathway. Mitochondria are an important source of reactive oxygen species leaked from the electron transport chain while they are susceptible to oxidative damage, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and tissue injury. In fact, impaired mitochondrial function is commonly observed in many types of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, alcoholic dementia, brain ischemia-reperfusion related injury, and others, although many of these neurological disorders have unique etiological factors. Mitochondrial dysfunction under many pathological conditions is likely to be promoted by increased nitroxidative stress, which can stimulate post-translational modifications (PTMs) of mitochondrial proteins and/or oxidative damage to mitochondrial DNA and lipids. Furthermore, recent studies have demonstrated that various antioxidants, including naturally occurring flavonoids and polyphenols as well as synthetic compounds, can block the formation of reactive oxygen and/or nitrogen species, and thus ultimately prevent the PTMs of many proteins with improved disease conditions. Therefore, the present review is aimed to describe the recent research developments in the molecular mechanisms for mitochondrial dysfunction and tissue injury in neurodegenerative diseases and discuss translational research opportunities.

Dietary phytochemicals and neuro-inflammaging: from mechanistic insights to translational challenges

An extensive literature describes the positive impact of dietary phytochemicals on overall health and longevity. Dietary phytochemicals include a large group of non-nutrients compounds from a wide range of plant-derived foods and chemical classes. Over the last decade, remarkable progress has been made to realize that oxidative and nitrosative stress (O&NS) and chronic, low-grade inflammation are major risk factors underlying brain aging. Accumulated data strongly suggest that phytochemicals from fruits, vegetables, herbs, and spices may exert relevant negative immunoregulatory, and/or anti-O&NS activities in the context of brain aging. Despite the translational gap between basic and clinical research, the current understanding of the molecular interactions between phytochemicals and immune-inflammatory and O&NS (IO&NS) pathways could help in designing effective nutritional strategies to delay brain aging and improve cognitive function. This review attempts to summarise recent evidence indicating that specific phytochemicals may act as positive modulators of IO&NS pathways by attenuating pro-inflammatory pathways associated with the age-related redox imbalance that occurs in brain aging. We will also discuss the need to initiate long-term nutrition intervention studies in healthy subjects. Hence, we will highlight crucial aspects that require further study to determine effective physiological concentrations and explore the real impact of dietary phytochemicals in preserving brain health before the onset of symptoms leading to cognitive decline and inflammatory neurodegeneration.

Nanoscale-alumina induces oxidative stress and accelerates amyloid beta (Aβ) production in ICR female mice

The adverse effects of nanoscale-alumina (Al2O3-NPs) have been previously demonstrated in both in vitro and in vivo studies, whereas little is known about their mechanism of neurotoxicity. It is the goal of this research to determine the toxic effects of nano-alumina on human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y and mouse hippocampal HT22 cells in vitro and on ICR female mice in vivo. Nano-alumina displayed toxic effects on SH-SY5Y cell lines in three different concentrations also increased aluminium abundance and induced oxidative stress in HT22 cells. Nano-alumina peripherally administered to ICR female mice for three weeks increased brain aluminium and ROS production, disturbing brain energy homeostasis, and led to the impairment of hippocampus-dependent memory. Most importantly, these nano-particles induced Alzheimer disease (AD) neuropathology by enhancing the amyloidogenic pathway of Amyloid Beta (Aβ) production, aggregation and implied the progression of neurodegeneration in the cortex and hippocampus of these mice. In conclusion, these data demonstrate that nano-alumina is toxic to both cells and female mice and that prolonged exposure may heighten the chances of developing a neurodegenerative disease, such as AD.

Melatonin attenuates D-galactose-induced memory impairment, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration via RAGE/NF-K B/JNK signaling pathway in aging mouse model

Melatonin acts as a pleiotropic agent in various age-related neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we examined the underlying neuroprotective mechanism of melatonin against D-galactose-induced memory and synaptic dysfunction, elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS), neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. D-galactose was administered (100 mg/kg intraperitoneally (i.p.)) for 60 days. After 30 days of D-galactose administration, vehicle (same volume) or melatonin (10 mg/kg, i.p.) was administered for 30 days. Our behavioral (Morris water maze and Y-maze test) results revealed that chronic melatonin treatment alleviated D-galactose-induced memory impairment. Additionally, melatonin treatment reversed D-galactose-induced synaptic disorder via increasing the level of memory-related pre-and postsynaptic protein markers. We also determined that melatonin enhances memory function in the D-galactose-treated mice possibly via reduction of elevated ROS and receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE). Furthermore, Western blot and morphological results showed that melatonin treatment significantly reduced D-galactose-induced neuroinflammation through inhibition of microgliosis (Iba-1) and astrocytosis (GFAP), and downregulating other inflammatory mediators such as p-IKKβ, p-NF-K B65, COX2, NOS2, IL-1β, and TNFα. Moreover, melatonin lowered the oxidative stress kinase p-JNK which suppressed various apoptotic markers, that is, cytochrome C, caspase-9, caspase-3 and PARP-1, and prevent neurodegeneration. Hence, melatonin attenuated the D-galactose-induced memory impairment, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration possibly through RAGE/NF-K B/JNK pathway. Taken together, our data suggest that melatonin could be a promising, safe and endogenous compatible antioxidant candidate for age-related neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD).