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Acharya P, Choi NY, Shrestha S, Jeong S, Lee MY. Brain organoids: A revolutionary tool for modeling neurological disorders and development of therapeutics. Biotechnol Bioeng 2024; 121:489-506. [PMID: 38013504 PMCID: PMC10842775 DOI: 10.1002/bit.28606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Brain organoids are self-organized, three-dimensional (3D) aggregates derived from pluripotent stem cells that have cell types and cellular architectures resembling those of the developing human brain. The current understanding of human brain developmental processes and neurological disorders has advanced significantly with the introduction of this in vitro model. Brain organoids serve as a translational link between two-dimensional (2D) cultures and in vivo models which imitate the neural tube formation at the early and late stages and the differentiation of neuroepithelium with whole-brain regionalization. In addition, the generation of region-specific brain organoids made it possible to investigate the pathogenic and etiological aspects of acquired and inherited brain disease along with drug discovery and drug toxicity testing. In this review article, we first summarize an overview of the existing methods and platforms used for generating brain organoids and their limitations and then discuss the recent advancement in brain organoid technology. In addition, we discuss how brain organoids have been used to model aspects of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), Rett syndrome, Zika virus-related microcephaly, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Huntington's disease (HD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Prabha Acharya
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
| | - Na Young Choi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
- Department of Healthcare Information Technology, Inje University, Gimhae, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunil Shrestha
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
| | - Sehoon Jeong
- Department of Healthcare Information Technology, Inje University, Gimhae, Republic of Korea
| | - Moo-Yeal Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Texas, Denton, Texas, USA
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D'Antoni C, Mautone L, Sanchini C, Tondo L, Grassmann G, Cidonio G, Bezzi P, Cordella F, Di Angelantonio S. Unlocking Neural Function with 3D In Vitro Models: A Technical Review of Self-Assembled, Guided, and Bioprinted Brain Organoids and Their Applications in the Study of Neurodevelopmental and Neurodegenerative Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10762. [PMID: 37445940 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 06/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the complexities of the human brain and its associated disorders poses a significant challenge in neuroscience. Traditional research methods have limitations in replicating its intricacies, necessitating the development of in vitro models that can simulate its structure and function. Three-dimensional in vitro models, including organoids, cerebral organoids, bioprinted brain models, and functionalized brain organoids, offer promising platforms for studying human brain development, physiology, and disease. These models accurately replicate key aspects of human brain anatomy, gene expression, and cellular behavior, enabling drug discovery and toxicology studies while providing insights into human-specific phenomena not easily studied in animal models. The use of human-induced pluripotent stem cells has revolutionized the generation of 3D brain structures, with various techniques developed to generate specific brain regions. These advancements facilitate the study of brain structure development and function, overcoming previous limitations due to the scarcity of human brain samples. This technical review provides an overview of current 3D in vitro models of the human cortex, their development, characterization, and limitations, and explores the state of the art and future directions in the field, with a specific focus on their applications in studying neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara D'Antoni
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Center for Life Nano- and Neuro-Science of Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Lorenza Mautone
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Center for Life Nano- and Neuro-Science of Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Caterina Sanchini
- Center for Life Nano- and Neuro-Science of Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Lucrezia Tondo
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Center for Life Nano- and Neuro-Science of Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Greta Grassmann
- Center for Life Nano- and Neuro-Science of Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), 00161 Rome, Italy
- Department of Biochemical Sciences "Alessandro Rossi Fanelli", Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Gianluca Cidonio
- Center for Life Nano- and Neuro-Science of Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Paola Bezzi
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Department of Fundamental Neurosciences, University of Lausanne, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Federica Cordella
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Center for Life Nano- and Neuro-Science of Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), 00161 Rome, Italy
| | - Silvia Di Angelantonio
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
- Center for Life Nano- and Neuro-Science of Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (IIT), 00161 Rome, Italy
- D-Tails s.r.l., 00165 Rome, Italy
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Wang G, Xu Y, Wang Q, Chai Y, Sun X, Yang F, Zhang J, Wu M, Liao X, Yu X, Sheng X, Liu Z, Zhang J. Rare and undiagnosed diseases: From disease-causing gene identification to mechanism elucidation. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 2:918-928. [PMID: 38933382 PMCID: PMC11197726 DOI: 10.1016/j.fmre.2022.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2022] [Revised: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Rare and undiagnosed diseases substantially decrease patient quality of life and have increasingly become a heavy burden on healthcare systems. Because of the challenges in disease-causing gene identification and mechanism elucidation, patients are often confronted with difficulty obtaining a precise diagnosis and treatment. Due to advances in sequencing and multiomics analysis approaches combined with patient-derived iPSC models and gene-editing platforms, substantial progress has been made in the diagnosis and treatment of rare and undiagnosed diseases. The aforementioned techniques also provide an operational basis for future precision medicine studies. In this review, we summarize recent progress in identifying disease-causing genes based on GWAS/WES/WGS-guided multiomics analysis approaches. In addition, we discuss recent advances in the elucidation of pathogenic mechanisms and treatment of diseases with state-of-the-art iPSC and organoid models, which are improved by cell maturation level and gene editing technology. The comprehensive strategies described above will generate a new paradigm of disease classification that will significantly promote the precision and efficiency of diagnosis and treatment for rare and undiagnosed diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Wang
- Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
- National Clinical Research Center of Kidney Diseases, Jinling Hospital, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, China
| | - Yuyan Xu
- Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Qintao Wang
- Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yi Chai
- Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiangwei Sun
- Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Fan Yang
- National Clinical Research Center of Kidney Diseases, Jinling Hospital, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Mengchen Wu
- Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xufeng Liao
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xiaomin Yu
- Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Xin Sheng
- Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Zhihong Liu
- Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China
- Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310058, China
- National Clinical Research Center of Kidney Diseases, Jinling Hospital, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210002, China
| | - Jin Zhang
- Zhejiang Laboratory for Systems & Precision Medicine, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China
- Center for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, Department of Basic Medical Sciences, The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine; Center of Gene/Cell Engineering and Genome Medicine of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310058, China
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Nour-Eldine W, Ltaief SM, Abdul Manaph NP, Al-Shammari AR. In search of immune cellular sources of abnormal cytokines in the blood in autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review of case-control studies. Front Immunol 2022; 13:950275. [PMID: 36268027 PMCID: PMC9578337 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.950275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal cytokine levels in circulating blood have been repeatedly reported in autism; however, the underlying cause remains unclear. This systematic review aimed to investigate cytokine levels in peripheral blood compartments and identify their potential immune cellular sources in subjects with autism through comparison with controls. We conducted an electronic database search (PubMed, Scopus, ProQuest Central, Ovid, SAGE Journals, and Wiley Online Library) from inception (no time limits) to July 9, 2020, and identified 75 relevant articles. Our qualitative data synthesis focused on results consistently described in at least three independent studies, and we reported the results according to the PRISMA protocol. We found that compared with controls, in subjects with autism, cytokines IL-6, IL-17, TNF-α, and IL-1β increased in the plasma and serum. We also identified monocytes, neutrophils, and CD4+ T cells as potential sources of these elevated cytokines in autism. Cytokines IFN-γ, TGF-β, RANTES, and IL-8 were increased in the plasma/serum of subjects with autism, and IFN-γ was likely produced by CD4+ T cells and natural killer (NK) cells, although conflicting evidence is present for IFN-γ and TGF-β. Other cytokines—IL-13, IL-10, IL-5, and IL-4—were found to be unaltered in the plasma/serum and post-stimulated blood immune cells in autistic individuals as compared with controls. The frequencies of T cells, monocytes, B cells, and NK cells were unchanged in subjects with autism as opposed to controls, suggesting that abnormal cytokines were unlikely due to altered cell numbers but might be due to altered functioning of these cells in autism. Our results support existing studies of abnormal cytokines in autism and provide comprehensive evidence of potential cellular sources of these altered cytokines in the context of autism.
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Barnhart AJ, Dierickx K. The Many Moral Matters of Organoid Models: A systematic review of reasons. MEDICINE, HEALTH CARE, AND PHILOSOPHY 2022; 25:545-560. [PMID: 35532849 DOI: 10.1007/s11019-022-10082-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 01/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To present the ethical issues, moral arguments, and reasons found in the ethical literature on organoid models. DESIGN In this systematic review of reasons in ethical literature, we selected sources based on predefined criteria: (1) The publication mentions moral reasons or arguments directly relating to the creation and/or use of organoid models in biomedical research; (2) These moral reasons and arguments are significantly addressed, not as mere passing mentions, or comprise a large portion of the body of work; (3) The publication is peer-reviewed and published in an academic article, book, national-level report, working paper, or Ph.D. thesis; (4) The publications collected are in English. ANALYSIS Each article was read in-depth for identifiable moral reasons, arguments, and concerns. These were then inductively classified and synthesized to create broader categories of reasons, and eventually an overarching conceptual scheme was created. RESULTS A total of twenty-three sources were included and analyzed out of an initial 266 collected sources. Five themes of ethical issues and arguments were found: Animal Experimentation; Clinical Applications and Experiments; Commercialization and Consent; Organoid Ontology and Moral Status; and Research Ethics and Research Integrity. These themes are then further broken down into sub-themes and topics. Given the extensive nature of the topics found, we will focus on describing the topics that comprised of more in-depth reasons and arguments rather than few, passing mentions or concerns. CONCLUSIONS The ethics of organoids requires further deliberation in multiple areas, as much of the discussions are not presented as in-depth arguments. Such sentiments are also echoed throughout the organoid ethics literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Barnhart
- Centre for Biomedical Ethics and Law, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Kris Dierickx
- Centre for Biomedical Ethics and Law, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
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Abstract
Organoids-cellular aggregates derived from stem or progenitor cells that recapitulate organ function in miniature-are of growing interest in developmental biology and medicine. Organoids have been developed for organs and tissues such as the liver, gut, brain, and pancreas; they are used as organ surrogates to study a wide range of questions in basic and developmental biology, genetic disorders, and therapies. However, many organoids reported to date have been cultured in Matrigel, which is prepared from the secretion of Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm mouse sarcoma cells; Matrigel is complex and poorly defined. This complexity makes it difficult to elucidate Matrigel-specific factors governing organoid development. In this review, we discuss promising Matrigel-free methods for the generation and maintenance of organoids that use decellularized extracellular matrix (ECM), synthetic hydrogels, or gel-forming recombinant proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark T Kozlowski
- DEVCOM US Army Research Laboratory, Weapons and Materials Research Directorate, Science of Extreme Materials Division, Polymers Branch, 6300 Rodman Rd. Building 4600, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Aberdeen, MD, 21005, USA.
| | - Christiana J Crook
- Department of Translational Research and Cellular Therapeutics, Diabetes and Metabolism Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, 1500 Duarte Rd., Duarte, CA, 91010, USA
- Irell and Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, 1500 Duarte Rd., Duarte, CA, 91010, USA
- Department of Medical Oncology and Therapeutics Research, City of Hope National Medical Center, 1500 Duarte Rd., Duarte, CA, 91010, USA
| | - Hsun Teresa Ku
- Department of Translational Research and Cellular Therapeutics, Diabetes and Metabolism Research Institute, City of Hope National Medical Center, 1500 Duarte Rd., Duarte, CA, 91010, USA
- Irell and Manella Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, 1500 Duarte Rd., Duarte, CA, 91010, USA
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In Vitro Recapitulation of Neuropsychiatric Disorders with Pluripotent Stem Cells-Derived Brain Organoids. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182312431. [PMID: 34886158 PMCID: PMC8657206 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182312431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Adolescent neuropsychiatric disorders have been recently increasing due to genetic and environmental influences. Abnormal brain development before and after birth contribute to the pathology of neuropsychiatric disorders. However, it is difficult to experimentally investigate because of the complexity of brain and ethical constraints. Recently generated human brain organoids from pluripotent stem cells are considered as a promising in vitro model to recapitulate brain development and diseases. To better understand how brain organoids could be applied to investigate neuropsychiatric disorders, we analyzed the key consideration points, including how to generate brain organoids from pluripotent stem cells, the current application of brain organoids in recapitulating neuropsychiatric disorders and the future perspectives. This review covered what have been achieved on modeling the cellular and neural circuit deficits of neuropsychiatric disorders and those challenges yet to be solved. Together, this review aims to provide a fundamental understanding of how to generate brain organoids to model neuropsychiatric disorders, which will be helpful in improving the mental health of adolescents.
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Anashkina AA, Erlykina EI. Molecular Mechanisms of Aberrant Neuroplasticity in Autism Spectrum Disorders (Review). Sovrem Tekhnologii Med 2021; 13:78-91. [PMID: 34513070 PMCID: PMC8353687 DOI: 10.17691/stm2021.13.1.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
This review presents the analysis and systematization of modern data on the molecular mechanisms of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) development. Polyetiology and the multifactorial nature of ASD have been proved. The attempt has been made to jointly review and systematize current hypotheses of ASD pathogenesis at the molecular level from the standpoint of aberrant brain plasticity. The mechanism of glutamate excitotoxicity formation, the effect of imbalance of neuroactive amino acids and their derivatives, neurotransmitters, and hormones on the ASD formation have been considered in detail. The strengths and weaknesses of the proposed hypotheses have been analyzed from the standpoint of evidence-based medicine. The conclusion has been drawn on the leading role of glutamate excitotoxicity as a biochemical mechanism of aberrant neuroplasticity accompanied by oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. The mechanism of aberrant neuroplasticity has also been traced at the critical moments of the nervous system development taking into account the influence of various factors of the internal and external environment. New approaches to searching for ASD molecular markers have been considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Anashkina
- Senior Teacher, Department of Biochemistry named after G.Y. Gorodisskaya; Senior Researcher, Central Scientific Research Laboratory, Privolzhsky Research Medical University, 10/1 Minin and Pozharsky Square, Nizhny Novgorod, 603005, Russia
| | - E I Erlykina
- Professor, Head of the Department of Biochemistry named after G.Y. Gorodisskaya, Privolzhsky Research Medical University, 10/1 Minin and Pozharsky Square, Nizhny Novgorod, 603005, Russia
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Makrygianni EA, Chrousos GP. From Brain Organoids to Networking Assembloids: Implications for Neuroendocrinology and Stress Medicine. Front Physiol 2021; 12:621970. [PMID: 34177605 PMCID: PMC8222922 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.621970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain organoids are three-dimensional cultures that contain multiple types of cells and cytoarchitectures, and resemble fetal human brain structurally and functionally. These organoids are being used increasingly to model brain development and disorders, however, they only partially recapitulate such processes, because of several limitations, including inability to mimic the distinct cortical layers, lack of functional neuronal circuitry as well as non-neural cells and gyrification, and increased cellular stress. Efforts to create improved brain organoid culture systems have led to region-specific organoids, vascularized organoids, glia-containing organoids, assembloids, sliced organoids and polarized organoids. Assembloids are fused region-specific organoids, which attempt to recapitulate inter-regional and inter-cellular interactions as well as neural circuitry development by combining multiple brain regions and/or cell lineages. As a result, assembloids can be used to model subtle functional aberrations that reflect complex neurodevelopmental, neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders. Mammalian organisms possess a highly complex neuroendocrine system, the stress system, whose main task is the preservation of systemic homeostasis, when the latter is threatened by adverse forces, the stressors. The main central parts of the stress system are the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and the locus caeruleus/norepinephrine-autonomic nervous system nuclei in the brainstem; these centers innervate each other and interact reciprocally as well as with various other CNS structures. Chronic dysregulation of the stress system has been implicated in major pathologies, the so-called chronic non-communicable diseases, including neuropsychiatric, neurodegenerative, cardiometabolic and autoimmune disorders, which lead to significant population morbidity and mortality. We speculate that brain organoids and/or assembloids could be used to model the development, regulation and dysregulation of the stress system and to better understand stress-related disorders. Novel brain organoid technologies, combined with high-throughput single-cell omics and gene editing, could, thus, have major implications for precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evanthia A Makrygianni
- University Research Institute of Maternal and Child Health and Precision Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - George P Chrousos
- University Research Institute of Maternal and Child Health and Precision Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.,Center for Adolescent Medicine and UNESCO Chair on Adolescent Health Care, First Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Aghia Sophia Children's Hospital, Athens, Greece
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Barnhart AJ, Dierickx K. Cultures and cures: neurodiversity and brain organoids. BMC Med Ethics 2021; 22:61. [PMID: 34001098 PMCID: PMC8130283 DOI: 10.1186/s12910-021-00627-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Research with cerebral organoids is beginning to make significant progress in understanding the etiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Brain organoid models can be grown from the cells of donors with ASD. Researchers can explore the genetic, developmental, and other factors that may give rise to the varieties of autism. Researchers could study all of these factors together with brain organoids grown from cells originating from ASD individuals. This makes brain organoids unique from other forms of ASD research. They are like a multi-tool, one with significant versatility for the scope of ASD research and clinical applications. There is hope that brain organoids could one day be used for precision medicine, like developing tailored ASD drug treatments. MAIN BODY Brain organoid researchers often incorporate the medical model of disability when researching the origins of ASD, especially when the research has the specific aim of potentially finding tailored clinical treatments for ASD individuals. The neurodiversity movement-a developmental disability movement and paradigm that understands autism as a form of natural human diversity-will potentially disagree with approaches or aims of cerebral organoid research on ASD. Neurodiversity advocates incorporate a social model of disability into their movement, which focuses more on the social, attitudinal, and environmental barriers rather than biophysical or psychological deficits. Therefore, a potential conflict may arise between these perspectives on how to proceed with cerebral organoid research regarding neurodevelopmental conditions, especially ASD. CONCLUSIONS Here, we present these perspectives and give at least three initial recommendations to achieve a more holistic and inclusive approach to cerebral organoid research on ASD. These three initial starting points can build bridges between researchers and the neurodiversity movement. First, neurodiverse individuals should be included as co-creators in both the scientific process and research communication. Second, clinicians and neurodiverse communities should have open and respectful communication. Finally, we suggest a continual reconceptualization of illness, impairment, disability, behavior, and person.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Barnhart
- Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Centre for Biomedical Ethics and Law, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Kris Dierickx
- Department of Public Health and Primary Care, Centre for Biomedical Ethics and Law, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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11
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Lin Y, Yang J, Shen Z, Ma J, Simons BD, Shi SH. Behavior and lineage progression of neural progenitors in the mammalian cortex. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2020; 66:144-157. [PMID: 33227588 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2020.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The cerebral cortex is a central structure in the mammalian brain that enables higher cognitive functions and intellectual skills. It is the hallmark of the mammalian nervous system with enormous complexity, consisting of a large number of neurons and glia that are diverse in morphology, molecular expression, biophysical properties, circuit connectivity and physiological function. Cortical neurons and glia are generated by neural progenitor cells during development. Ensuring the correct cell cycle kinetics, fate behavior and lineage progression of neural progenitor cells is essential to determine the number and types of neurons and glia in the cerebral cortex, which together constitute neural circuits for brain function. In this review, we discuss recent findings on mammalian cortical progenitor cell types and their lineage behaviors in generating neurons and glia, cortical evolution and expansion, and advances in brain organoid technology that allow the modeling of human cortical development under normal and disease conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Lin
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jiajun Yang
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Zhongfu Shen
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Jian Ma
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Benjamin D Simons
- The Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK; Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, Centre for Mathematical Sciences, Wilberforce Road, Cambridge CB3 0WA, UK
| | - Song-Hai Shi
- IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Tsinghua-Peking Center for Life Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center of Biological Structure, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Structural Biology, School of Life Sciences, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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12
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Badekila AK, Kini S, Jaiswal AK. Fabrication techniques of biomimetic scaffolds in three-dimensional cell culture: A review. J Cell Physiol 2020; 236:741-762. [PMID: 32657458 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.29935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In the last four decades, several researchers worldwide have routinely and meticulously exercised cell culture experiments in two-dimensional (2D) platforms. Using traditionally existing 2D models, the therapeutic efficacy of drugs has been inappropriately validated due to the failure in generating the precise therapeutic response. Fortunately, a 3D model addresses the foregoing limitations by recapitulating the in vivo environment. In this context, one has to contemplate the design of an appropriate scaffold for favoring the organization of cell microenvironment. Instituting pertinent model on the platter will pave way for a precise mimicking of in vivo conditions. It is because animal cells in scaffolds oblige spontaneous formation of 3D colonies that molecularly, phenotypically, and histologically resemble the native environment. The 3D culture provides insight into the biochemical aspects of cell-cell communication, plasticity, cell division, cytoskeletal reorganization, signaling mechanisms, differentiation, and cell death. Focusing on these criteria, this paper discusses in detail, the diversification of polymeric scaffolds based on their available resources. The paper also reviews the well-founded and latest techniques of scaffold fabrication, and their applications pertaining to tissue engineering, drug screening, and tumor model development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjana K Badekila
- Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Nitte (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Sudarshan Kini
- Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Nitte (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, Karnataka, India
| | - Amit K Jaiswal
- Centre for Biomaterials, Cellular, and Molecular Theranostics, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
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Ojeda J, Ávila A. Early Actions of Neurotransmitters During Cortex Development and Maturation of Reprogrammed Neurons. Front Synaptic Neurosci 2019; 11:33. [PMID: 31824293 PMCID: PMC6881277 DOI: 10.3389/fnsyn.2019.00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of the brain is shaped by a myriad of factors among which neurotransmitters play remarkable roles before and during the formation and maturation of synaptic circuits. Cellular processes such as neurogenesis, morphological development, synaptogenesis and maturation of synapses are temporary and spatially regulated by the local or distal influence of neurotransmitters in the developing cortex. Thus, research on this area has contributed to the understanding of fundamental mechanisms of brain development and to shed light on the etiology of various human neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism and Rett syndrome (RTT), among others. Recently, the field of neuroscience has been shaken by an explosive advance of experimental approaches linked to the use of induced pluripotent stem cells and reprogrammed neurons. This new technology has allowed researchers for the first time to model in the lab the unique events that take place during early human brain development and to explore the mechanisms that cause synaptopathies. In this context, the role of neurotransmitters during early stages of cortex development is beginning to be re-evaluated and a revision of the state of the art has become necessary in a time when new protocols are being worked out to differentiate stem cells into functional neurons. New perspectives on reconsidering the function of neurotransmitters include opportunities for methodological advances, a better understanding of the origin of mental disorders and the potential for development of new treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jorge Ojeda
- Developmental Neurobiology Unit, Biomedical Sciences Research Laboratory, Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Ariel Ávila
- Developmental Neurobiology Unit, Biomedical Sciences Research Laboratory, Basic Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile
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Abstract
Brain organoids are self-assembled three-dimensional aggregates generated from pluripotent stem cells with cell types and cytoarchitectures that resemble the embryonic human brain. As such, they have emerged as novel model systems that can be used to investigate human brain development and disorders. Although brain organoids mimic many key features of early human brain development at molecular, cellular, structural and functional levels, some aspects of brain development, such as the formation of distinct cortical neuronal layers, gyrification, and the establishment of complex neuronal circuitry, are not fully recapitulated. Here, we summarize recent advances in the development of brain organoid methodologies and discuss their applications in disease modeling. In addition, we compare current organoid systems to the embryonic human brain, highlighting features that currently can and cannot be recapitulated, and discuss perspectives for advancing current brain organoid technologies to expand their applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuyu Qian
- Department of Neuroscience and Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Biomedical Engineering Graduate Program, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Hongjun Song
- Department of Neuroscience and Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- The Epigenetics Institute, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Guo-Li Ming
- Department of Neuroscience and Mahoney Institute for Neurosciences, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Perelman School for Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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