Interplay between tumor-derived factors and tumor-associated neutrophils: opportunities for therapeutic interventions in cancer

Unraveling the complex role of neutrophils in lymphoma: From pathogenesis to therapeutic approaches (Review)

Lymphoma, a malignancy of the lymphatic system, which is critical for maintaining the body's immune defenses, has become a focal point in recent research due to its intricate interplay with neutrophils-white blood cells essential for combating infections and inflammation. Unlike prior perceptions associating neutrophils only with tumor support, contemporary studies underscore their intricate and multifaceted involvement in the immune response to lymphoma. Recognizing the nuanced participation of neutrophils in lymphoma is crucial for developing innovative treatments to improve patient outcomes.

The Tumor Microenvironment as a Therapeutic Target in Cutaneous T Cell Lymphoma

Cutaneous T cell lymphomas (CTCLs) are a heterogeneous group of non-Hodgkin lymphomas, with mycosis fungoides and Sézary syndrome being the two common subtypes. Despite the substantial improvement in early-stage diagnosis and treatments, some patients still progress to the advanced stage with an elusive underpinning mechanism. While this unsubstantiated disease mechanism coupled with diverse clinical outcomes poses challenges in disease management, emerging evidence has implicated the tumor microenvironment in the disease process, thus revealing a promising therapeutic potential of targeting the tumor microenvironment. Notably, malignant T cells can shape their microenvironment to dampen antitumor immunity, leading to Th2-dominated responses that promote tumor progression. This is largely orchestrated by alterations in cytokines expression patterns, genetic dysregulations, inhibitory effects of immune checkpoint molecules, and immunosuppressive cells. Herein, the recent insights into the determining factors in the CTCL tumor microenvironment that support their progression have been highlighted. Also, recent advances in strategies to target the CTCL tumor micromovement with the rationale of improving treatment efficacy have been discussed.

Focal adhesion kinase-mediated interaction between tumor and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment: implications for cancer-associated therapies and tumor progression

Focal adhesion kinase (FAK) expression has been linked to tumor growth, immunosuppression, metastasis, angiogenesis, and therapeutic resistance through kinase-dependent and kinase scaffolding functions in the nucleus and cytoplasm. Hence, targeting FAK alone or with other agents has gained attention as a potential therapeutic strategy. Moreover, mounting evidence shows that FAK activity can influence the tumor immune microenvironment crosstalk to support tumor progression. Recently, tumor immune microenvironment interaction orchestrators have shown to be promising therapeutic agents for cancer immunotherapies. Therefore, this review highlights how FAK regulates the tumor immune microenvironment interplay to promote tumor immune evasive mechanisms and their potential for combination therapies with standard cancer treatments.

The dual role of autophagy in the regulation of cancer treatment

As a catabolic process, autophagy through lysosomes degrades defective and damaged cellular materials to support homeostasis in stressful conditions. Therefore, autophagy dysregulation is associated with the induction of several human pathologies, including cancer. Although the role of autophagy in cancer progression has been extensively studied, many issues need to be addressed. The available evidence suggest that autophagy shows both cytoprotective and cytotoxic mechanisms. This dual role of autophagy in cancer has supplied a renewed interest in the development of novel and effective cancer therapies. Considering this, a deeper understanding of the molecular mechanisms of autophagy in cancer treatment is crucial. This article provides a summary of the recent advances regarding the dual and different mechanisms of autophagy-mediated therapeutic efficacy in cancer.

Genetic alterations shape innate immune cells to foster immunosuppression and cancer immunotherapy resistance

Cancer immunotherapy, particularly immune checkpoint inhibitors, has opened a new avenue for cancer treatment following the durable clinical benefits. Despite the clinical successes across several cancer types, primary or acquired resistance might eventually lead to cancer progression in patients with clinical responses. Hence, to broaden the clinical applicability of these treatments, a detailed understanding of the mechanisms limiting the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy is needed. Evidence provided thus far has implicated immunosuppressive innate immune cells infiltrating the tumor microenvironment as key players in immunotherapy resistance. According to the available data, genetic alterations can shape the innate immune response to promote immunotherapy resistance and tumor progression. Herein, this review has discussed the current understanding of the underlying mechanisms where genetic alterations modulate the innate immune milieu to drive immunosuppression and immunotherapy resistance.

Overcoming anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint blockade resistance: the role of macrophage, neutrophils and mast cells in the tumor microenvironment

In recent years, the anti-PD-1/PD-L1 blockade has become a game changer in cancer treatment following the unprecedented response rate. Regardless of the substantial therapy efficacy across various cancer types, some patients do not still respond to these therapies, indicating that a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 resistance is highly important. To overcome such resistance, the tumor-induced immunosuppressive mechanisms have been focused and several suppressor cell populations in the tumor microenvironment have been identified. Among these cells, macrophages, neutrophils, and mast cells are known to play key roles in anti-PD-1/PD-L1 resistance. Hence, gaining control over these innate immune cells can open opportunities for breaking tumor resistance to immune checkpoint inhibitors. Herein, a summary of the role of macrophages, neutrophils, and mast cells in anti-PD-1/PD-L1 resistance has been described. Also, strategies to overcome their therapeutic resistance to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 have been discussed.

The dual and multifaceted role of relaxin-2 in cancer

The continuous increase in cancer-associated deaths despite the substantial improvement in diagnosis and treatment has sparked discussions on the need for novel biomarkers and therapeutic strategies for cancer. Although increasing evidence has demonstrated the pivotal role of relaxin-2 in multiple cancers, their role is a double-edged sword with both protumor and antitumor having been reported in various malignant tumors. Considering this dual role, it appears the biological mechanism underpinning the action of relaxin-2 in cancer is not clear and further studies to elucidate their potential as a preventive factor for cancers are of prime importance. Herein, a summarized up-to-date report on the role of relaxin-2 in human cancer including detailed clinical and experimental evidence supporting their tumor-promoting and inhibitory functions in cancer development and progression has been elucidated. Also, signaling pathways and other factors orchestrating the activities of relaxin-2 in the tumor microenvironment has been discussed. Collectively, the evidence from this review has demonstrated the need for further evaluation of the role of relaxin-2 as a diagnostic and or prognostic biomarker for cancer.

Exosome-mediated crosstalk between tumor cells and innate immune cells: implications for cancer progression and therapeutic strategies

The increasing number of cancer-associated deaths despite the substantial improvement in diagnosis and treatment has sparked discussions on the need for novel biomarkers and therapeutic strategies for cancer. Exosomes have become crucial players in tumor development and progression, largely due to the diverse nature of their cargo content released to recipient cells. Importantly, exosome-mediated crosstalk between tumor and stromal cells is essential in reprogramming the tumor microenvironment to facilitate tumor progression. As a result, exosomes have gradually become a marker for the early diagnosis of many diseases and an important tool in drug delivery systems. However, the precise mechanisms by which exosomes participate in tumor progression remain elusive, multifaceted, and a double-edged sword, thus requiring further clarification. The available evidence suggests that exosomes can facilitate communication between innate immune cells and tumor cells to either support or inhibit tumor progression. Herein, this review focused on exosome-mediated intercellular communication between tumor cells and macrophages, neutrophils, mast cells, monocytes, dendritic cells, and natural killer cells. Specifically, how such intercellular communication affects tumor progression has been described. It has also been discussed that, depending on their cargo, exosomes can suppress or promote tumor cell progression. In addition, the potential application of exosomes and strategies to target exosomes in cancer treatment has been comprehensively discussed.