Metal Contamination in Fruit Juices in Turkey: Method Validation and Uncertainty Budget

Determination of potentially toxic elements and health risk assessment of dried fruits

This study aims to measure the concentrations of As, Cd, Pb, Cr, and Ni in dried fruits and examine the health effects of these trace metals in relation to people's daily dietary intake. 29 samples of dried fruits purchased at bazaar place were analyzed in terms of toxic elements, which have been reported as cancerous by the World Health Organization (WHO). Dried fruits were digested in a microwave oven with HNO3 and H2O2. Metal concentrations (As, Cd, Cr, Ni, and Pb) in these samples were measured using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Linearity, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), specificity/selectivity, and recovery (%) were all evaluated. The correlation coefficients of elements in this method were good (R2 > 0.9997). The amount of consumption in the area was used to calculate a health risk assessment. The results showed that the samples of dried fruit, which are widely consumed in the identified area, had variable levels. All dried fruits had element concentrations that were lower than the WHO/FAO safe limit.

Evaluation of radiological health risk due to ingestion and inhalation of radon in commercial packaged fruit juices consumed in Turkey

Fruit juices (FJs) are among the most popular beverages frequently preferred by consumers, believing FJs contain the nutritional values, minerals, phytochemicals, vitamins, and antioxidants necessary for a healthy life. However, FJs may contain natural radionuclides such as radon (222Rn), which originates from the fruit and water utilized in their production, at levels that may pose a health risk to people. Inhalation and ingestion of 222Rn gas increases the risk of lung and stomach cancer. In this study, commercially packaged FJs from the seventeen most popular brands consumed in Turkey were analyzed for physicochemical properties and 222Rn activity concentrations to evaluate the radiological health risk. The values of pH, brix and 222Rn activity concentrations in FJ samples varied from 2.68 to 4.28, 2.50 to 14.30%, 9.6 ± 1.1 to 25.2 ± 2.5 mBq/L, respectively. The radiological health risk caused by internal exposure was evaluated for children and adults by estimating the ingestion and inhalation annual effective dose. The average values of the total annual effective dose for children and adults were found as 0.039 µSv and 0.056 µSv, respectively, which are much lower than the recommended dose of 100 µSv for drinking water.

Sample Preparation and Analytical Techniques in the Determination of Trace Elements in Food: A Review

Every human being needs around 20 essential elements to maintain proper physiological processes. However, trace elements are classified as beneficial, essential, or toxic for living organisms. Some trace elements are considered essential elements for the human body in adequate quantities (dietary reference intakes, DRIs), while others have undetermined biological functions and are considered undesirable substances or contaminants. Pollution with trace elements is becoming a great concern since they can affect biological functions or accumulate in organs, causing adverse effects and illnesses such as cancer. These pollutants are being discarded in our soils, waters, and the food supply chain due to several anthropogenic factors. This review mainly aims to provide a clear overview of the commonly used methods and techniques in the trace element analysis of food from sample preparations, namely, ashing techniques, separation/extraction methods, and analytical techniques. Ashing is the first step in trace element analysis. Dry ashing or wet digestion using strong acids at high pressure in closed vessels are used to eliminate the organic matter. Separation and pre-concentration of elements is usually needed before proceeding with the analytical techniques to eliminate the interferences and ameliorate the detection limits.

The method development for elimination of matrix interferences in seawater monitoring to determine elements by ICP-MS

A simple, versatile, and economical method development with matrix elimination to determine the elements As, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn in seawater by using the technique of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry is reported. Real seawater was used as a matrix for the standard adding calibration and other validation parameters. The samples were open digested at 80 °C with 2 mL HNO₃ and 0.25 mL HF under the hood. A two-step digestion procedure was applied, and the volume was completed to 10 mL with deionized water. Chloride removal was accomplished by using this procedure. The concentrations of Ca and Mg ions were lessened by 15% and 20%, respectively. These results were verified with ion chromatography, SEM-EDS, and mass difference analyses. It was observed that there was a 40% loss in the average mass of particulate matter on the filter media after applying the two-step digestion procedure. Recovery and trueness values were in the range of 86 and 109%. The average precision amounts for elements were determined as RSD (%) in the range of 1.0% and 3.4%. The concentrations of elements determined in the 18 samples collected from the Konyaaltı Beach located in Antalya were higher than the maximum allowable concentrations of the Directive 2013/39/EU.

Biofortification quality in bananas monitored by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence and chemometrics

Biofortification is a nutritional strategy used to enhance nutrients in a variety of staple foods. As bananas and plantains (Musa spp.) are considered staple food in many developing countries, monitoring zinc (Zn) content in biofortified bananas is crucial to ensure this mineral intake. Bananas were biofortified by injecting Zn sulfate heptahydrate (ZnSO₄·7H₂O) solutions into banana trees' pseudostem (1%, 2%, and 4%) compared with the control treatment. Zinc content was estimated using energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) and multivariate calibration using partial least squares (PLS). The impressive result is the possibility of high throughput analysis of Zn in bananas after biofortification to guarantee the quality when eaten as a central portion of the diet.

Rapid and simple determination of As in bottled birch saps by hydride generation inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry

A strategy was developed for the determination of total As in birch saps (BSs) by hydride generation (HG) coupled with inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). We proposed and validated a simple and robust HG-ICP-OES method with no need for tedious and long sample preparation before measurements. Corresponding As hydride was generated in reaction with NaBH₄ (1.0%) in acidic conditions (10 mol L^-1 HCl) after pre-reduction of As(V) to As(III) in a KI (0.5%)-ascorbic acid (2.0%)-HCl (3 mol L^-1) mixture. Several different sample preparation procedures, including digestive and non-digestive approaches, were tested in order to improve the detectability of As using HG-ICP-OES. Reactivity of As towards HG under conditions of a real sample was investigated to check potential interfering effects coming from undecomposed sample matrix constituents. The proposed method included the direct analysis of untreated samples (only pre-reduction prior to HG) and precision (<6% as relative standard deviation), accuracy (94.7-108.7% as recoveries) and sensitivity (limit of detection at 0.26 ng mL^-1) that was suitable for trace analysis. An absence of matrix effects allowed external calibration for quantification of As. Applicability of the method was demonstrated by determination of As in several commercially available bottled BSs.

Evaluation of Copper and Manganese Concentrations in Commercial Fruit Juices and Nectars Consumed in Brazil by GF AAS

The present work proposes a simple method for direct determination of Cu and Mn in commercial fruit juices and nectars by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GF AAS). We analyzed samples of different flavors (orange, mango, passion fruit, peach, and grape) and brands of Brazilian commercial fruit juices and nectars. We also carried out a study to define a suitable temperature program and to optimize the calibration conditions. It was possible to determine Cu and Mn in the samples just after a simple dilution of samples with a 0.70 mol L^-1 HNO₃ solution, except in the case of grape juice. We compared the results obtained with the proposed method to those obtained after a traditional treatment based on acid digestion in a microwave oven, and no significant differences were observed (except for grape juice). The accuracy of the method was assessed through a recovery test, which provided recovery percentages in the range of 81-117%. Precision was always better than 8%, and the limits of quantification for Cu and Mn were 6 μg L^-1 and 9 μg L^-1, respectively. We analyzed twenty-two samples, and the concentrations of Cu and Mn were in the range of 24.1-321 μg L^-1 and 116-3296 μg L^-1, respectively. Statistical analysis using a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) at 95% confidence level showed that flavor and brand impacted on the concentration of the analytes in the samples. Among the samples analyzed, the grape juice presented the highest concentrations of both Cu and Mn.

Mineral Composition Evaluation in Energy Drinks Using ICP OES and Chemometric Tools

This study reports the simultaneous determination of the total concentrations of Al, Ca, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, P, and Zn in 17  samples of commercial energy drinks through inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry and multivariate methods, such as Pearson correlation and principal component analysis (PCA), in order to conduct a more thorough evaluation of the original data. The samples studied were stored in two types of containers (polyethylene terephthalate bottles and aluminum cans) and purchased in the city of Belém (State of Pará, Brazil). The results showed high Na content in energy drinks, followed by K, Ca, and Mg. The accuracy of the optimized method was evaluated with the certified reference materials to assess trace elements in water (NIST 1643e); the resultant recoveries varied from 83 to 105%. Energy drinks stored in cans presented higher levels of aluminum and magnesium, while those bottled in polyethylene terephthalate bottles had a higher K content. There were significant differences between the observed Na concentrations and the values dictated on the drink package. Furthermore, PCA explained 70.38% of the total variance, allowing for an evaluation of the degree of similarity between the energy drinks studied and showing that the main contributions to the formation of groups are related to Fe, Na, Mg, and Zn contents. These results will be used to better understand the distribution of inorganic elements contained in energy drinks.

Heavy metal accumulation and genotoxic effects in levant vole (Microtus guentheri) collected from contaminated areas due to mining activities

Heavy metal contamination is a serious environmental problem commonly monitored in various organisms. Small wild rodents are ideal biological monitors to show the extent of environmental pollution. The aim of this study was to evaluate the adverse effects of marble and stone quarries on the Levant vole, Microtus guentheri, inhabiting some polluted sites. In this context, Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used to analyze distribution of thirteen heavy metals (Fe, Al, Zn, Cu, Cr, Mn, Ni, B, Pb, As, Co, Cd, and Hg) in the organs (skins, bones, muscles, livers and kidneys) of the biological specimens, and the comet assay revealed DNA damage in blood lymphocytes for the first time. This study was conducted at close to the marble and stone quarries at Korkuteli, Antalya-Turkey during spring, summer, autumn (2017) and winter (2018) seasons. In spring and summer, genetic damage in blood lymphocytes from all polluted sites (sites 1-5) was significantly higher than that of controls, while in autumn it was higher in samples from three sites (sites 3-5). In terms of heavy metal distribution in organs, we found depositions of Fe, Al, Zn, Ni, Mn, Cr, Co, As and Pb primarily in the skin with its derivatives, Cu and Cd deposits in the kidney, Cu, Cd and B deposits in the liver, and As and Pb depositions in the bones. The study shows that certain organs (especially skin with its derivatives) and blood lymphocytes of Levant vole can be used as ideal indicators of heavy metal pollution. Our results suggest that the Korkuteli area could already be under the threat of heavy metal pollution.

Survey of trace elements in bottled natural mineral waters using ICP-MS

This study monitors the elemental composition of different brands of bottled natural mineral waters marketed in Turkey and discusses compositional parameters. Natural mineral water samples were analyzed for cesium (Cs), rubidium (Rb), thallium (Tl), cobalt (Co), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), gallium (Ga), vanadium (V), silver (Ag), cadmium (Cd), uranium (U), thorium (Th), and molybdenum (Mo) by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Method trueness was confirmed by using 1640A natural water certified reference materials purchased from Laboratory of the Government Chemist (LGC). The linearity, limit of detection, limit of quantification, repeatability, and recovery (%) were assessed. Method validation data and results obtained from the certified reference material suggested that the method could be applied to determine elemental contaminants of the samples. Cd, Tl, Ag, and Th could not be determined (< LOD) in the samples. Pb, Cs, Co, Rb, Ga, V, U, As, Cr, and Mo were determined in samples. The results were compared with elemental standards for natural mineral waters set according to the World Health Organization and United States Environmental Protection Agency, and the concentrations of all metals did not exceed these values.

Health Risk Assessment of Exposure to Heavy Metals and Aflatoxins via Dietary Intake of Dried Red Pepper from Marketplaces in Antalya, Southern Turkey

Red pepper is used as raw material in industry and as a seasoning in various foods. In this study, the cadmium, lead and arsenic content of 33 red pepper samples sold in open and sealed packages on different markets was investigated in terms of their synthetic color components, aflatoxin amounts and toxic elements, which have been declared as cancerous by the World Health Organization (WHO). According to the results, synthetic colorants, arsenic and cadmium were not detected in any of the samples, while lead was detected in 11 samples and aflatoxins were detected in eight of the samples. As a consequence of these investigations, a health risk analysis was carried out by taking into account the amount of consumption in the region. The B1 aflatoxin content in the samples, according to daily consumption data, exceeded the limits set by the European Commission (EC) by almost 150%.

Determination of trace metals in fruit juices in the Portuguese market

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Validation process for the analysis of metals in fruit juices was implemented.

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Cd, Cr, Pb, As, Ni and Mn were determined in fruit juices.

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62% of the samples had Ni above the maximum permissible values according with the Portuguese legislation.

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All the samples had Mn above the Portuguese legislation limits.

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A reduction of metal concentration in Portuguese juices is recommended.

Fruit juices are amongst the most non-alcoholic beverages appreciated and consumed in European countries, including Portugal. These beverages contain minerals, nutrients, trace elements, vitamins and phytochemicals, which are essential for a healthy life. However, fruit juices may also contain high levels of metals, posing a health risk to humans, especially to children, since they consume more fruit juice per body weight unit, and have a less varied diet than adults. Thus, in order to guarantee food safety and to make sound nutritional considerations, fruit juices require careful investigation. The main purpose of this study was to determine arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn) and nickel (Ni) concentrations in 21 fruit juices from 4 different brands, previously selected by the ASAE (Portuguese Food and Economic Safety Authority), and available in the Portuguese market. Results obtained were compared with permissible levels set out by WHO (World Health Organization), USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), by the Portuguese law, and with similar studies performed in other countries. A validation process, including linearity, range, analytical thresholds, precision, accuracy and specificity/selectivity was conducted in order to guarantee reliable analytical data. The results showed that As levels in four samples, Ni in thirteen samples and Mn in all the twenty-one samples, were above the maximal permissible values specified by Decree-Law 306/2007 from 27th August of the Portuguese Legislation. These data establish the need for reduction of metal concentrations in consumed juices.