Parent and Child Reporting of Corporal Punishment: New Evidence from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study

"Children Are Like Vuvuzelas Always Ready to Blow": Exploring How to Engage Young Children in Violence Research

Children's participation and inclusion in violence research, particularly in low- and middle-income country (LMIC) contexts, is scant and not well understood. To assess how young children can be engaged in violence research, 4- to 7-year-old children were recruited into our pilot study in a rural area of South Africa. Six interviewers, recruited from the community, were trained to complete cognitive interviews (n = 24), interviewer-administered questionnaires (n = 21), and qualitative interviews (n = 18) with young children. Three focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted with interviewers. Findings from FGDs and assessment of interview performance highlighted that young children could feasibly and meaningfully appraise violence they experience and articulate their view in a research context. Art- and play-based approaches offered participants an easier and developmentally appropriate platform for communication, expression, and engagement, and asking directly about violence was acceptable. The ease with which children participated was determined both by their level of development and the sensitivity of the interviewers; thus, intensive training and mentorship were required over time to assist interviewers in understanding child development and mental health and increase recognition of these issues and their presentation. Interviewers critically engaged with personal values regarding children's rights and voice in research, reflecting that some of the stories were difficult to listen to. They were able to use and value novel methods to facilitate the ethical involvement of young children to yield rich data. Without young children's involvement and dynamic participation in violence research, the field will not have the evidence to build best practices, respond appropriately to the needs of this vulnerable population, and interrupt the intergenerational transmission of violence that develops in these formative years. Our study adds to the burgeoning evidence that young participants are vital to the research process and are valuable active contributors to understanding violence in LMICs.

Early Childhood Income Instability and Mental Health in Adolescence: Parenting Stress and Child Maltreatment as Mediators

Ample research has examined how point-in-time or static measures of economic deprivation are associated with children's mental health outcomes. Less is known about the relationship between early childhood unstable income and mental health outcomes. Using the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study, this study examined (1) the latent patterns of early childhood economic well-being, predicted by income level and instability (i.e., direction and frequency of income change); (2) the association of income deprivation patterns with subsequent anxiety and depression symptoms, paying particular attention to the mediating roles of parenting stress and child maltreatment risk. The latent class analysis results suggested four distinct groups representing different combinations of income level and instability. Structural equation modeling results indicated indirect links between income deprivation patterns and mental health outcomes, through parenting stress and physical and psychological abuse. Findings indicated the importance of policies and programs promoting economic stability over the long run.

Conducting Violence Research Across Multiple Family Generations and with Young Children: Findings from a Mixed-Methods Pilot Study in South Africa

This paper presents findings from a pilot study focused on examining intergenerational violence in a three-generation sample, which included young children, in a rural area of South Africa. The aims of the pilot study were to investigate the feasibility of participant recruitment, consent, and interviewing; length and burden of the study questionnaires; appropriateness and acceptability of the measures used; and young children's (age 4-7) ability to comprehend the measures and participate meaningfully in interviews asking about violence. Data were collected for 4 months with three groups of participants, often within families (young adults, their children, and the young adults' former caregivers), using cognitive interviews, quantitative questionnaires, and qualitative in-depth interviews. All groups participated in arts-based methods and child interviews included visual and tactile aids. Pilot study findings demonstrated feasible recruitment within families for a three-generation study using comprehensive consent protocols and mandatory reporting information. Adults and young children were able to participate in the extensive interviews (2-3 h and 1 h, respectively) without significant burden. The employed measures were appropriate and acceptable to the setting, though minor revisions were made to improve comprehension of certain items. Young children were able to engage and participate meaningfully in the research, though they were not able to answer abstract reasoning items in cognitive interviews and children who were less developmentally advanced required more play- and arts-based accommodations to support their participation. Future research around sensitive topics, such as violence, appears feasible within families and including young children as participants even in resource-poor settings.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42448-023-00157-w.

Corporal Punishment Is Uniquely Associated With a Greater Neural Response to Errors and Blunted Neural Response to Rewards in Adolescence

BACKGROUND

Although corporal punishment is a common form of punishment with known negative impacts on health and behavior, how such punishment affects neurocognitive systems is relatively unknown.

METHODS

To address this issue, we examined how corporal punishment affected neural measures of error and reward processing in 149 adolescent boys and girls of ages 11 to 14 years (mean age [SD] = 11.02 [1.16]). Corporal punishment experienced over the lifetime was assessed using the Stress and Adversity Inventory. In addition, participants completed a flankers task and a reward task to measure the error-related negativity and reward positivity, respectively, as well as measures of anxiety and depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

As hypothesized, participants who experienced lifetime corporal punishment reported more anxiety and depressive symptoms. Experiencing corporal punishment was also related to a larger error-related negativity and blunted reward positivity. Importantly, corporal punishment was independently related to a larger error-related negativity and a more blunted reward positivity beyond the impact of harsh parenting and lifetime stressors.

CONCLUSIONS

Corporal punishment appears to potentiate neural response to errors and decrease neural response to rewards, which could increase risk for anxiety and depressive symptoms.

Maternal use of corporal punishment and behavior problems in early childhood: A sibling comparison analysis

BACKGROUND

Previous research demonstrates that there are environmental and genetic factors associated with the use of corporal punishment (CP) and children's behavior problems. Thus, it is difficult to disentangle whether CP has a causal effect on children's developmental outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

This study explored the relationship between maternal use of CP at ages 3-4 years and symptoms of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems between the ages of 6 and 9 years using a sibling comparison design. In doing so, we were able to control for shared environmental factors and partially control for genetic factors that could explain the relationship between CP and behavior problems.

METHODS

This study analyzed data from 11,506 children from the United States. We used generalized linear models to assess the relationship between the use of CP and behavior problems among biological siblings raised in the same home.

RESULTS

At the population level, CP was significantly associated with the development of internalizing behavior problems (β = 0.134, SE = 0.03, p < .001). When comparing siblings, this relationship was no longer significant. In contrast, CP was significantly associated with externalizing behavior problems at both the population (β = 0.233, SE = 0.02, p < .001) and sibling comparison level (β = 0.107, SE = 0.03, p < .001).

CONCLUSION

We did not find evidence to suggest that the association between CP and externalizing behavior problems is due to environmental and genetic factors exclusively. Corroborating previous research, these results suggest that CP may increase the likelihood of externalizing behavior problems.

Building Infrastructure for Surveillance of Adverse and Positive Childhood Experiences: Integrated, Multimethod Approaches to Generate Data for Prevention Action

Adverse and positive childhood experiences have a profound impact on lifespan health and well-being. However, their incorporation into ongoing population-based surveillance systems has been limited. This paper outlines critical steps in building a comprehensive approach to adverse and positive childhood experiences surveillance, provides examples from the Preventing Adverse Childhood Experiences: Data to Action cooperative agreement, and describes improvements needed to optimize surveillance data for action. Components of a comprehensive approach to adverse and positive childhood experiences surveillance include revisiting definitions and measurement, including generating and using uniform definitions for adverse and positive childhood experiences across data collection efforts; conducting youth-based surveillance of adverse and positive childhood experiences; using innovative methods to gather and analyze near real-time data; leveraging available data, including from administrative sources; and integrating data on community- and societal-level risk and protective factors for adverse childhood experiences, including social and health inequities such as racism and poverty, as well as policies and conditions that create healthy environments for children and families. Comprehensive surveillance data on adverse and positive childhood experiences can inform data-driven prevention and intervention efforts, including focusing prevention programming and services to populations in greatest need. Data can be used to evaluate progress in reducing the occurrence of adverse childhood experiences and bolstering the occurrence of positive childhood experiences. Through expansion and improvement in adverse and positive childhood experiences surveillance-including at federal, state, territorial, tribal, and local levels-data-driven action can reduce children's exposure to violence and other adversities and improve lifelong health and well-being.

Parent and Child Reports of Parenting Behaviors: Agreement Among a Longitudinal Study of Drug Court Participants

Identifying ways to support children of parents with substance use disorder is a critical public health issue. This study focused on the parent-child relationship as a critical catalyst in child resilience. Using data from a longitudinal cohort study, the aims of this study were to: (1 ) examine the agreement between parent and child reports of parenting behaviors and (2 ) describe the association between agreement and child mental health. Participants were 50 parent-child dyads that included parents enrolled in an adult drug court and their children, aged 8-18. Overall, agreement (i.e., concordance) between parent and child reports of parenting was slight to fair. Parents reported their parenting behaviors to be slightly more positive than how children rated the same behaviors in the areas of: involvement, 0.53 (SD = 0.80); positive parenting, 0.66 (SD = 0.87), and monitoring behaviors, 0.46 (SD = 0.90). Parents also rated themselves, in comparison to their children's reports, as using less inconsistent discipline, -0.33 (SD = 1.00), and less corporal punishment, 0.13 (SD = 1.01). Agreement was related to some, but not all, child mental health outcomes. When parents rating their parenting as more positive than their child reported, that had a negative effect on child self-esteem and personal adjustment. Contrary to hypotheses, we did not find a significant relationship between positive parenting and internalizing problems. Findings have implications for obtaining parent and child reports of parenting within the drug court system, and for identifying children at higher risk for externalizing problems.

The E Is in the G: Gene-Environment-Trait Correlations and Findings From Genome-Wide Association Studies

Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have shown that pleiotropy is widespread (i.e., the same genetic variants affect multiple traits) and that complex traits are polygenic (i.e., affected by many genetic variants with very small effect sizes). However, despite the growing number of GWASs, the possible contribution of gene-environment correlations (rGEs) to pleiotropy and polygenicity has been mostly ignored. rGEs can lead to environmentally mediated pleiotropy or gene-environment-trait correlations (rGETs), given that an environment that is affected by one genetically influenced phenotype, can in turn affect a different phenotype. By adding correlations with environmentally mediated genetic variants, rGETs can contribute to polygenicity. Socioeconomic status (SES) and the experience of stressful life events may, for example, be involved in rGETs. Both are genetically influenced and have been associated with a myriad of physical and mental disorders. As a result, GWASs of these disorders may find the genetic correlates of SES and stressful life events. Consequently, some of the genetic correlates of physical and mental disorders may be modified by public policy that affects environments such as SES and stressful life events. Thus, identifying rGETs can shed light on findings from GWASs and have important implications for public health.

Associations between young children's exposure to household violence and behavioural problems: Evidence from a rural Kenyan sample

Little is known about how young children in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) experience violence in their homes, and how different types of household violence may affect child development. This study reports on levels of exposure to household violence and associations with child behavioural outcomes in preschool-aged children in western Kenya. A sample of 465 caregivers, whose children (n = 497) attended early learning centres supported by an international NGO, were enrolled in the study. Caregivers reported on exposure to intimate partner violence (IPV), household discipline practices, attitudes about gender roles, and child behavioural outcomes. Multivariable analysis showed significant predictive effects of IPV (regression coefficient = 1.35, SE = 0.54, p = 0.01) and harsh psychological child discipline (regression coefficient = 0.74, SE = 0.22, p = 0.001), but not physical discipline (regression coefficient = 0.42, SE = 0.24, p = 0.08), on worse child behavioural problems. These findings indicate that child exposure to violence in different forms is highly prevalent, and associated with poorer outcomes in young children. Community-based programmes focused on parenting and early child development are well-positioned to address household violence in LMIC settings, but must be supported to provide a broader understanding of violence and its immediate and long-term consequences.

Violent Poly-Victimization: The Longitudinal Patterns of Physical and Emotional Victimization Throughout Adolescence (11-17 Years)

In this study, we aimed to characterize developmental patterns of poly-victimization in a normative sample of adolescents by applying longitudinal latent class analysis. Using the four most recent waves of data from the Zurich Project on the Social Development of Children and Youths (z-proso), we identified three classes, or separate groups, of youths with distinct patterns of victimization from age 11 to 17. The largest class represented young people who were least likely to be victimized in any way and at any time. The two smaller groups represented different types of poly-victimization-a non-parental and a long-term parental victimization group. Adolescents in the two groups differed both in the number as well as type of victimization that they experienced at different times. Moreover, class membership also had implications for different mental health outcomes.

Predicting the use of corporal punishment: Child aggression, parent religiosity, and the BDNF gene

Corporal punishment (CP) has been associated with deleterious child outcomes, highlighting the importance of understanding its underpinnings. Although several factors have been linked with parents' CP use, genetic influences on CP have rarely been studied, and an integrative view examining the interplay between different predictors of CP is missing. We focused on the separate and joint effects of religiosity, child aggression, parent's gender, and a valine (Val) to methionine (Met) substitution in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) gene. Data came from a twin sample (51% male, aged 6.5 years). We used mothers' and fathers' self-reports of CP and religiosity, and the other parent's report on child aggression. Complete data were available for 244 mothers and their 466 children, and for 217 fathers and their 409 children. The random split method was employed to examine replicability. For mothers, only the effect of religiosity appeared to replicate. For fathers, several effects predicting CP use replicated in both samples: child aggression, child sex, religiosity, and a three-way (GxExE) interaction implicating fathers' BDNF genotype, child aggression and religiosity. Religious fathers who carried the Met allele and had an aggressive child used CP more frequently; in contrast, secular fathers' CP use was not affected by their BDNF genotype or child aggression. Results were also repeated longitudinally in a subsample with age 8-9 data. Findings highlight the utility of a bio-ecological approach for studying CP use by shedding light on pertinent gene-environment interaction processes. Possible implications for intervention and public policy are discussed.

Severity and Justness Do Not Moderate the Relation Between Corporal Punishment and Negative Child Outcomes: A Multicultural and Longitudinal Study

There is strong evidence of a positive association between corporal punishment and negative child outcomes, but previous studies have suggested that the manner in which parents implement corporal punishment moderates the effects of its use. This study investigated whether severity and justness in the use of corporal punishment moderate the associations between frequency of corporal punishment and child externalizing and internalizing behaviors. This question was examined using a multicultural sample from eight countries and two waves of data collected one year apart. Interviews were conducted with 998 children aged 7-10 years, and their mothers and fathers, from China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, Philippines, Thailand, and the United States. Mothers and fathers responded to questions on the frequency, severity, and justness of their use of corporal punishment; they also reported on the externalizing and internalizing behavior of their child. Children reported on their aggression. Multigroup path models revealed that across cultural groups, and as reported by mothers and fathers, there is a positive relation between the frequency of corporal punishment and externalizing child behaviors. Mother-reported severity and father-reported justness were associated with child-reported aggression. Neither severity nor justness moderated the relation between frequency of corporal punishment and child problem behavior. The null result suggests that more use of corporal punishment is harmful to children regardless of how it is implemented, but requires further substantiation as the study is unable to definitively conclude that there is no true interaction effect.

Exposure to violence and psychological well-being over time in children affected by HIV/AIDS in South Africa and Malawi

Many of the risk factors for violence against children are particularly prevalent in families and communities affected by HIV/AIDS. Yet, in sub-Saharan Africa, where HIV rates are high, efforts to prevent or address violence against children and its long-lasting effects are hampered by a lack of evidence. We assessed the relationship between violence exposure and mental health among HIV-affected children attending community-based organisations in South Africa (n = 834) and Malawi (n = 155, total sample n = 989) at baseline and 12-15-month follow-up. Exposure to violence in the home and in the community was high. HIV-negative children who lived with an HIV-positive person experienced most violence overall, followed by HIV-positive children. Children unaffected by HIV experienced least violence (all p < .05). Interpersonal violence in the home predicted child depression (β = 0.17, p < .001), trauma symptoms (β = 0.17, p < .001), lower self-esteem (β = -0.17, p < .001), and internalising and externalising behavioural problems (β = 0.07, p < .05), while exposure to community violence predicted trauma symptoms (β = 0.16, p < .001) and behavioural problems (β = 0.07, p < .05). Harsh physical discipline predicted lower self-esteem (β = -0.18, p < .001) and behavioural problems for children (β = 0.24, p < .001). Exposure to home (OR: 1.89, 95% CI: 1.23-2.85) and community violence predicted risk behaviour (OR: 2.39, 95% CI: 1.57-3.62). Over time, there was a decrease in depressed mood and problem behaviours, and an increase in self-esteem for children experiencing different types of violence at baseline. This may have been due to ongoing participation in the community-based programme. These data highlight the burden of violence in these communities and possibilities for programmes to include violence prevention to improve psychosocial well-being in HIV-affected children.